基于ELES模型的城市居民生活用水水价分析——以重庆市为例

以重庆市为例,对居民生活用水现状及城市供水的定价进行分析研究,基于ELES模型,分析重庆市居民生活用水水价的支付能力。结果表明:水费支出承受能力随可支配收入的增加而增加;用水需求收入弹性随可支配收入的增加而增大;低收入户的生活用水基本需求支出处于警戒线;2016年重庆市实施了阶梯水价的计价方式,定价基本合理,存在一定的改进空间。     

Household size and residential water demand: an empirical approach*

The effectiveness of pricing policies depends on the price elasticity of consumption. It is well documented that residential demand for water is influenced by heterogeneity associated with differences in the size of the household and socioeconomic characteristics. In this paper, we focus on household size. Our initial hypothesis is that users’ sensitivity to changes in price is different depending on the number of household members. To this end, we carry out an empirical estimation of urban water demand in Zaragoza (Spain) distinguishing between households with different sizes using data at the individual level. As far as we are aware, this approach to urban residential water demand is new in the literature. The analysis suggests that all households are sensitive to prices regardless of size. A more relevant finding is that small households are more sensitive to price changes.     

国内外城市居民生活水价及可承受能力分析

水价作为重要的经济杠杆对促进节约用水具有重要意义。通过分析国内外典型城市现状居民生活水价及水价承受能力,得出3方面结论:国内外城市一般采用全成本水价定价方法,考虑供水的资源成本、工程成本和环境成本,发达国家城市居民水价明显高于国内城市,我国东部城市水价高于中西部,北方城市水价高于南方;计价模式主要有单一制水价和固定费用与可变费用相结合的模式,国内城市和东京、新加坡均实行阶梯水价;国内外水价差异较大,各城市居民人均月水费支出占可支配收入的比值(R值)均偏低,我国R值明显低于国际城市R值,不利于发挥节水激励作用。建议根据实际情况合理调整水价,支撑节水型社会建设。     

Bringing competition to urban water supply*

This paper proposes a market‐based reform that would introduce competition into the provision of urban water. This proposal calls for a decoupling of infrastructure control and ownership of water whereby the property rights to water would be transferred to private hands. The proposal involves periodically allocation (e.g. by auction) of existing water stock held in urban catchments to virtual suppliers who then compete in providing bulk water. This change when coupled with effective third party access and retail competition would lead to a competitive market for the provision of urban water. The approach aims to address concerns over inefficient pricing and infrastructure provision under the current arrangement.     

基于虚拟水视角的中国城乡居民消费特征分析

以2004—2015年我国各食物产品的虚拟水消费量为基础数据,从虚拟水消费量、消费结构和消费水平地域差异三方面分析我国的虚拟水消费特征。结果表明:农村居民食物产品的人均虚拟水消费总量整体呈下降趋势,城镇居民则相反,且农村居民的动物性食物虚拟水消费量增长幅度大于城镇居民;农村居民的粮食虚拟水消费量高于城镇居民,动物性食物的虚拟水消费量低于城镇居民,但两者之间差距在减小;城镇居民的虚拟水消费相比农村居民更趋多元化,消费水平相对较高;各食物产品的人均虚拟水消费结构存在明显地域差异,不同种类的食物虚拟水消费均存在地域性。     

Does anybody like water restrictions? Some observations in Australian urban communities*

Mandatory water restrictions continue to be the immediate response to urban water shortages in most major cities in southern Australia. Whilst generally rejected by economists on efficiency grounds, restrictions and the enforcement regimes used to invoke them are, nonetheless, viewed by some in the community as a positive way of dealing with water scarcity. Given the likelihood that urban water restrictions will persist for some time, there is value in understanding householders’ attitudes in this context. The impact and acceptability of differing approaches to enforcement is of particular interest, because this has wider ramifications for the administration of policy generally. This paper uses the results from a choice experiment to investigate the interplay between different components of a water restriction regime. In stark contrast to prevailing views that focus on the community benefits from ‘sharing the pain of water shortages’, results point to the significance of being able to inform on ones neighbours as a component of the enforcement regimes.     

国内外水权交易研究述评

通过对国内外水权交易相关文献的整理,就当前的研究成果及问题进行了归纳总结,从水权及水权交易的定义、前提、定价、外部效应及政府的角度对当前研究成果和未来研究趋势进行述评。通过文献梳理得知,近几十年来水权交易的成功案例和经验已为这一问题构建了较完备的研究体系,但在水权的内涵、水权交易的前提、水权的定价等方面的研究成果仍不理想,建议未来应当重点从水权及水权交易的内涵、水权交易过程的效率评价以及生态环境效应等角度开展进一步的研究。     

Exploring the Impact of Customer Satisfaction on Food Retailers' Evolution: Managerial Lessons From Austria

Many studies have shown that customer satisfaction affects customer behavior and loyalty. There are, however, relatively few studies that examine the impact of customer satisfaction on store repatronage behavior by store-type choice. This study examines why Austrian consumers choose a certain store type (i.e., supermarket or bakery) for purchases in a particular product category (i.e., baked goods). Moreover, it assesses the impact of customer satisfaction on customer loyalty (i.e., the repatronage intention). The study found that customers valued different attributes for each store type. It also suggested that customer satisfaction and customers' intention to recommend varied by store type. Additionally, the bakery customers' tendency to spend more is positively related to their satisfaction level. Managerial implications for both types of stores are provided.     

2部制水价应用研究

简介2部制水价的含义与模型，提出确定水利工程供水的2部制价格所依据的原则：可行性原则，促进水资源可持续发展原则，灵活性原则，全面性原则和可操作性原则。由于一个地区的水市场是一种垄断市场，需水方分为城市生活用水、工业用水和农业用水3方，各方的需求价格弹性不同。因此，可以实行价格歧视，对不同的市场收取不同的水费。在2部制水价模型的基础上，根据水商品的特性，利用价格歧视理论，提出了农业用水、工业用水和城市用水的差别定价理论并以河北省陡河水库为例进行实证分析。     

关于农业两部制水价制定方法的探讨

剖析《灌溉排水学报》2005年第2期发表的“可持续发展条件下的农业水价制定研究”一文中提出的农业水价制定原则、农业两部制水价的内涵、农业用水两部制定价模式及具体表达式等问题,指出其具体计价、计费公式存在着物理意义模糊、不同用水条件考虑不全面、定价模式本身存在着实际操作性较差且不能保证供水单位持续运行的缺陷。提出农业用水应考虑公平性原则、两部制定价的意义及两种农业用水两部制水价定价模式等。     

Urban water management: optimal price and investment policy under climate variability*

Australian urban water utilities face a significant challenge in designing appropriate demand management and supply augmentation policies in the presence of significant water scarcity and climate variability. This article considers the design of optimal demand management and supply augmentation policies for urban water. In particular, scarcity pricing is considered as a potential alternative to the predominant demand management policy of water restrictions. A stochastic dynamic programming model of an urban water market is developed based on data from the ACT region. Given a specification of the demand and supply for urban water state dependent optimal price and investment policies are estimated. The results illustrate how the optimal urban water price varies inversely with the prevailing storage level and how the optimal timing of investment differs significantly between rain dependent and rain independent augmentation options.     

农业水价政策对农户种植结构的影响——以新疆地区为例

为了缓解用水危机,提高用水效率,中国正在推进农业水价综合改革,试图建立以水权交易为核心的水价制度。本文根据作物的亩均灌溉用水量将作物划分为高耗水作物和低耗水作物,利用新疆天山北麓5县(含2个团场和3个县)的农户调查数据,对比分析实施统一水价、阶梯水价、水权交易水价3种水价政策区域内农户的种植结构,探索农民在不同水价政策下的种植决策,并进一步验证价格信号对农户种植选择的影响。研究发现,由于水费收取方式和水价不同,实施不同的水价政策对农户的种植结构产生了不同的影响。与其他水价政策相比,水权交易水价更能促使农户选择更为节水的作物。不同水价政策下水的定价是影响农户选择种植结构的关键要素,当农户灌溉用水的机会成本增加时,他们会增加低耗水作物的种植比例。每亩低价水定额对农户选择种植低耗水作物有非线性的影响,当每亩低价水定额超过一定数量时,定额进一步增加会导致农户减少种植低耗水作物。     

Water pricing policies,public decision making and farmers' response: implications for water policy

The problems caused by water scarcity demand important changes in the criteria and objectives of water policies. The agricultural sector in Spain consumes up to 80% of all available hydric resources and the need to increase the efficiency of current uses of water in the agricultural sector is at the core of the country's national water policy. One alternative would be to resort to water pricing policies with the aim of providing incentives to save water consumption although it would inflict a certain degree of income losses to the farmers and raise the revenue collected by the water authorities. The objective of this research is to analyze the effect caused by the application of different water pricing policies on water demand, farmers' income and the revenue collected by the government agency. To undertake this analysis a dynamic mathematical programming model has been built that simulates farmers' behavior and their response to different water pricing scenarios. Empirical application of the model has been carried out in several irrigation districts in Spain covering varied farm regions and river basins. Results show that the effects of alternative pricing policies for irrigation water are strongly dependent on regional, structural and institutional conditions and that changing policies produce distinct consequences within the same region and water district. Thus, equivalent water charges would create widespread effects on water savings, farm income and collected government revenue across regions and districts.     

Gender and conservation agriculture in East and Southern Africa: towards a research agenda

It is remarkable that despite wide-ranging, in-depth studies over many years, almost no conservation agriculture (CA) studies consider gender and gender relations as a potential explanatory factor for (low) adoption rates. This is important because CA demands new ways of working with the farm system. Implementation will inevitably involve a reallocation of men's and women's resources as well as having an impact upon their ability to realize their gender interests. With respect to intra-household decision-making and the distribution of benefits, CA interventions have implications for labour requirements and labour allocation, investment decisions with respect to mechanization and herbicide use, crop choice, and residue management. CA practice may impact upon the ability of households to source a wide variety of crops, wild plants, and insects and small animals for household nutrition. Gender biases in extension service design can sideline women. This paper examines the limited research to date on the interactions between CA interventions and gender in East and Southern Africa, and, based on the gaps observed, sets out a research agenda. It argues that attention to gender in CA is particularly timely given the increasing interest in CA as a means of adapting to climate change.     

Pricing Sydney water*

The paper estimates an aggregate daily water demand for Sydney using rainfall, temperature, and price data from 2001 to 2005, and a dummy variable to account for reductions in demand following the introduction of water restrictions in October 2003. Analyses based on the estimated price elasticity, and also values one and two standard errors above and below this estimate, are used to model the effects of different pricing and water supply scenarios. The simulations indicate that without a fundamental change in water policy (pricing and supply) Sydney faces the possibility of critical water shortages in the short- to medium-term should there be a continuation of low rainfall events.     

土地利用总体规划与城市规划冲突的利益关系及协调

研究目的：调查“两规”冲突不同利益主体的利益诉求及其针对城镇建设用地规模这一“两规”冲突核心问题的行为倾向,并据此勾勒出“两规”冲突的利益相关者关系,进而探寻相应的协调对策。研究方法：问卷调查法、深度访谈法。研究结果：15个利益主体有不同的利益诉求,其中某些主体同时拥有多项相互矛盾的利益诉求;针对城镇建设用地规模这一核心问题,具有矛盾利益诉求的主体有着不同的行为倾向;依据其利益诉求及行为倾向,可以将15个利益主体分别归入利益相关者核心层、紧密层和松散层。研究结论：改变核心层利益相关者的利益诉求,减缓其对立关系是解决“两规”冲突的根本出路;在规划编制阶段构建完善的冲突协商机制和在规划审批阶段强化省级政府的制约作用是当前更务实的选择;此外,还需强化规划的执行监督,及时发现并处置冲突。     

北京市居民生活水价支付意愿及影响因素研究

基于对北京市居民生活用水户访谈与问卷调查,对北京市的东城、西城、朝阳、海淀、丰台、石景山6个区的居民生活用水户的水价支付意愿进行抽样调查,采用Logistic回归模型分析供水服务满意程度、家庭对水费负担程度、对北京缺水的认知程度、对现行水价态度等影响居民水价支付意愿的主要因素,结果显示:26.6%的被调查户愿意支付比现行水价高的水价,73.4%的调查户不愿意支付比现行水价高的水价。分析表明:用户对供水服务态度满意度越高、水费占家庭收入比重越低、对北京市缺水现状了解越多,则居民的水价支付意愿就越强烈。建议根据影响因素分析结果区分不同的目标支付群体,制定完善的水价调整政策,加大宣传力度并加强对低收入人群的水价补贴工作,从而提高居民支付意愿。     

西南地区水贫困测度和空间格局分析以重庆市为例

目的 通过对重庆市的水贫困进行测度和空间格局分析,为解决西南地区水贫困及水资源短缺问题找到了新的途径和思路。方法 文章采用主客观综合赋权法,从资源、设施、能力、使用和环境五方面确定22个指标构建重庆市水贫困测度指标体系,对重庆市水贫困进行测度,并利用GIS软件,依据自然断裂点法,对重庆市的水贫困进行空间格局分析,将其划分为高水贫困区、较高水贫困区、中水贫困区、较低水贫困区、低水贫困区5个差异区域,同时利用GeoDa软件对水贫困测度结果进行空间自相关分析。结果 （1）重庆市水贫困资源系统和使用系统指数等级偏高区域主要分布在渝东北、渝西和主城等经济相对较为发达、人口密集的区县,设施系统和能力系统指数等级偏高区域主要分布在渝东北和渝东南等社会经济水平较低的地区,环境系统指数等级偏高区域主要分布在经济水平相对较高且农业较为发达的地区。（2）重庆市水贫困分布呈两头小中间大的“椭球状”结构,高水贫困区、较低水贫困区、低水贫困区占比较少,较高水贫困区、中水贫困区占比较多。不同的水贫困区存在不同的问题和成因,需根据不同水贫困特征采取不同的解决措施,综合治理重庆市的水贫困问题。（3）重庆市水贫困空间集聚特征明显,低低集聚区主要分布在主城的渝中区、江北区、南岸区、巴南区和沙坪坝区,低值区分布较集中,高值区分布较零散,无高高集聚区。结论 重庆市水贫困空间分布差异明显,不同的水贫困区存在不同的问题和成因,可从以分别对各区域水贫困进行治理。     

Determinants of peri-urban and urban agricultural locational choice behaviour in Lagos,Nigeria

This article quantitatively assessed factors that shape locational choice behaviour of urban farmers. Three hundred questionnaires were randomly administered to farmers in ten localities with a view to identifying factors that shape their locational choice behaviour. The average number of farmers per locality was designated as the index of attractiveness and was correlated with six broad categories of factors identified by farmers as influential in urban agricultural site selection. These broad factors are proximity to water, proximity to residence, access to land, proximity to market, suitable fertile soils, and availability of labour. These factors were subsequently broken down to sixteen categories. Almost all the variables exhibited negatively significant correlations with the index of attractiveness. Urban farmers prefer sites which were closer to water, free with minimal lease and rental cost, and also sites with fertile soil that is closer to farmer's residence, where aggregate costs of production is minimal and labour relatively available. The results obtained can be used in mainstreaming urban agriculture into city planning while at the same time provide avenue for increased urban agricultural productivity.