最优财政和货币政策及其福利效应分析

本文建立了财政和货币政策协作的最优政策模型,并以中国经济为研究对象,以福利效应为最优政策的评估标准,研究了财政和货币政策协作的最优政策机制。分析表明:在Ramsey最优均衡下,财政和货币政策共同作用于通货膨胀和产出目标,以严格通货膨胀为目标的最优货币规则会使得政策的福利损失最小,但货币政策在产出目标、通货膨胀目标以及政策福利损失三者上不能同时兼顾;最优财政规则是趋向缩小收支差,从而趋近于福利损失最小。本文同时使用贝叶斯分析,对中国经济政策2005年第一季度至2009年第二季度的福利效应进行了评估,实证分析表明:样本期间政策的无条件福利损失处于波动状态,经济增长增加了家庭部门的条件福利损失,即经济增长导致跨期消费成本增加。     

中国信贷歧视的福利成本*

国有企业与民营企业之间的信贷歧视是中国经济转型过程中所特有的现象。本文构建了一个具有信贷歧视的动态随机一般均衡模型,以计算中国信贷歧视的福利成本。计算结果表明,信贷歧视大约会使整体社会的福利损失增加62%,其原因在于信贷歧视加剧了民营企业的产出波动并进而放大了通胀波动。本文进一步对比了不同货币政策下的福利损失,发现信贷歧视均会产生福利成本。据此,本文认为信贷歧视必须予以破除,从而消除信贷歧视带来的福利成本。     

PPI与CPI背离、金融摩擦异质性与货币政策选择

2011年下半年到2016年初PPI与CPI长时间持续背离的现象一直受到社会各界普遍关注.本文从大宗商品价格、上下游生产结构与金融摩擦异质性视角分析了这一现象,并探讨了货币政策规则的选择.研究发现:(1)负向大宗商品价格冲击导致PPI的下降,由此带来的货币政策宽松与中国结构性金融摩擦分别从需求端和成本端拉升了 CPI,从而导致PPI与CPI的反向背离,这为PPI与CPI的背离提供了新的理论解释.(2)本文比较了盯住PPI通胀、CPI通胀以及两者加权通胀的货币政策规则,发现盯住加权通胀带来的福利损失最小,表明央行在稳定CPI的同时,也应重视对PPI的稳定.(3)本文比较了价格型与数量型货币政策工具,结果表明从福利角度看,价格型货币政策工具显著优于数量型工具.此外,本文强调了上下游金融摩擦异质性这一结构性特征对认识中国经济现象以及制定政策的重要含义.     

外汇储备对最优货币政策的影响

本文将外汇储备这一变量加入包括汇率与资产价格的宏观经济框架中,以最小化央行的损失函数为目标,得到央行最优货币政策规则,并结合中国经济数据进行实证分析,结果显示央行在制定货币政策时,应优先考虑产出缺口和通胀缺口,其次考虑汇率等相关因素.     

最优货币政策规则及在中国的实证

本文基于一个由二次损失函数以及线性约束条件构成的典型L-Q货币政策分析框架,根据均衡的一阶条件,给出了最优货币政策规则解。并根据我国的实际数据,建立和估计经济结构模型,计算和比较了不同央行目标函数下最优规则解性质与特点。结果表明,在我国当前处于转型经济和通胀波动频繁的条件下,央行仅关注通胀缺口和产出缺口的最优利率规则解不能作为我国货币政策操作中的名义锚,而扩展型的最优利率规则解具有更好的性质,可为我国货币政策提供一个更好的参考尺度。     

中国最优货币政策的选择、比较和影响——基于混合型新凯恩斯模型的实证研究

文章通过构建和估计一个混合型新凯恩斯模型,首次检验了中国最优货币政策的类型,并系统比较了相机抉择和事先承诺的货币政策对中国经济的影响。文章综合运用极大似然估计法、反事实仿真、似然比检验、贝叶斯信息准则、二阶矩比较和脉冲响应等方法研究发现:(1)我国实施的货币政策与最优货币政策不存在显著差异,我国的最优货币政策类型是相机抉择的货币政策;(2)在我国,相机抉择、事先承诺的货币政策和最优泰勒规则都把产出稳定作为最重要的政策目标,其次是通胀稳定;(3)相对于事先承诺,相机抉择的货币政策使我国的产出和通胀更不稳定,并造成更大的社会福利损失;(4)在我国货币政策调控中,最优泰勒规则可以很好地近似和代替事先承诺的货币政策。     

中国实践中货币政策有效性研究综述

本文从中国货币政策实践的角度论述了货币政策的有效性,分别是反金融危机,适度宽松的货币政策效果非常显著,中国经济率先复苏;经济复苏后,管理通胀为主的稳健货币政策以保持价格水平稳定和改革开放以来增发货币对中国的贡献.并充分肯定货币政策在宏观调控中的作用:1.与传统凯恩斯主义相反,货币政策对付衰退作用明显:即使短期利率水平接近于零,货币政策也能有效地刺激经济;2.货币政策是保持价格水平稳定的重要工具.货币政策的重要目标是避免非预期的价格水平波动,因此保持价格水平的稳定应当是货币政策的长期目标;3.货币增长率增加,能提高政府实际收入,增加政府支出.     

我国通胀与经济增长放缓福利 成本的比较研究

经济理论和实践经验通常认为我国经济增长放缓的福利成本远高于通货膨胀的福利成本,因而“保增长”的重要性远高于“防通胀”。本文认为这一判断已经不再适用于我国当前情况,核心原因是当前家庭的财产积累水平较以往有了大幅度提高,通胀将通过财产再分配效应造成严重的社会福利损失。经过计算发现：在各组参数设定下,5%的通胀和经济增速下滑一个百分点所造成的社会总福利成本（对消费的补偿比例）分别平均是18%和59%;通胀福利成本与增长放缓福利成本之比平均为329%,相比之下,在不考虑财产再分配效应的计算方法中,该比例仅为约16%。这说明在中长期“保增长”和“防通胀”都具有重要的社会福利意义,因此宏观调控应该将二者都作为重要的政策目标。     

混合预期增广的Phillips曲线与中国最优货币政策规则——基于SVAR模型的实证研究

本文基于货币政策规则的LRE模型框架和混合预期增广的高阶滞后Phillips曲线,推导出最优"混合"货币政策规则,并利用SVAR模型对中国最优"混合"货币政策规则进行实证检验和冲击响应分析。研究表明:中国Phillips曲线具有混合预期增广的二阶滞后特征,最优货币政策规则具有前瞻性正向特征和通胀惯性负向特征的"混合"特征。冲击响应路径显示:中国通胀形成的主要驱动因素是通胀预期和通胀惯性,中国货币政策具有显著滞后效应和不确定性。因此,在混合预期增广的高阶滞后Phillips曲线的传导机制下,在以规则行事的货币政策框架内,货币当局应采取缓慢渐进的"混合"政策调整方式,减少货币政策的调整频率,同时将货币政策重点转向基于通胀预期和通胀惯性的通胀管理。     

从通胀目标制到平均通胀目标制：理论、实践与反思

2020年8月和2021年7月美联储和欧洲央行相继转向新的货币政策框架,这是对当前全球流行的通胀目标制实践的拓展和延伸。理论上,最优通胀率应为负或为零,但由于零利率下界等现实因素,各国都设定了大于零的通胀目标(2%标准),采用兼顾其他目标的弹性通胀目标制。尽管通胀目标制获得巨大成功,但越来越兼顾其他目标及更灵活的安排呈现出明显的相机抉择特征。基于理论溯源和早期的实践分析表明,美联储的平均通胀目标制实质上是临时价格水平目标制,欧洲央行的新框架实质上是价格水平目标制。与简单工具规则相比,将通胀目标制作为最优货币政策目标规则的政策效果并不稳健。探索能够更好解释现实的简单稳健货币规则,仍是未来理论研究和政策实践的重要方向,这对健全中国现代货币政策框架具有重要的启示性意义。     

Common Currencies vs. Monetary Independence

We study the optimal monetary policy in a two-country open-economy model under two monetary arrangements: (a) multiple currencies controlled by independent policy makers; (b) common currencies with a centralized policy maker.
Our findings suggest that: (i) monetary policy competition leads to higher long-term inflation and interest rates with large welfare losses; (ii) the inflation bias and the consequent losses are larger when countries are unable to commit to future policies; (iii) the welfare losses from higher long-term inflation dominates the welfare costs of losing the ability to react optimally to shocks.     

Optimal versus realized policy rules in a regime-switching framework

In this paper we compare a deterministic model and a Markov switching model to analyze the behavior of the US economy and the Federal Reserve. We examine both optimal and empirical monetary policies for the US Federal Reserve between 1960 and 2008. We compare the optimal monetary policy to the actual interest rates and to the empirical reaction function. We also evaluate the sensitivity of the results to the preferences assigned to each objective. We find that there is no unique optimal solution that fits the Federal Reserve behavior over the entire period. The best fit to the actual interest rates is obtained by an optimal policy with preference switches following the rule: a high-volatility regime coincides with a priority on inflation alone while in a low-volatility regime there is equal policy priority on output stabilization and inflation.     

The optimal choice of monetary policy instruments in a small open economy

Abstract.  This paper studies how the nature of shocks affects the optimal choice of monetary policy instruments in a small open economy. Three classic rules, fixed exchange rates, monetary targeting, and inflation targeting are studied and ranked by comparing with the optimal monetary policy under commitment. We find that the ranking of the simple rules can be mapped to the terms-of-trade variability that the rule allows relative to what a particular shock optimally calls for. It turns out that inflation targeting dominates the other two rules under productivity or velocity shocks, whereas monetary targeting is the best performer under fiscal shocks.     

The optimal neglect of inflation: An alternative interpretation of UK monetary policy during the “Great Moderation”

This paper argues that UK monetary policymakers did not respond to the inflation rate during most of the “Great Moderation” that ran from the early 1990s to the mid-2000s. We derive a generalisation of the New Keynesian Phillips curve in which inflation is a non-linear function of the output gap and show that the optimal response of the policy rule to inflation depends on the slope of the Phillips curve; if this is flat, manipulation of aggregate demand through monetary policy does not affect inflation and so policymakers cannot affect inflation. We estimate the monetary policy rules implied by a variety of alternative Phillips curves; our preferred model is based on a Phillips curve that is flat when output is close to equilibrium. We find that policy rates do not respond to inflation when the output gap is small, a situation that characterised most of the “Great Moderation” period.     

‘Talking down monetary policy’ – a note

There is a recent debate about whether ultra-expansionary monetary policy is no longer effective in stimulating demand, a concern often voiced in the euro area in light of persistently low and even negative inflation. As a response, the European Central Bank (ECB) warns against ‘talking down monetary policy’ (ECB Vice-President Vítor Constâncio, 2016). This note uses a textbook model of optimal monetary policy to study a situation in which the public misperceives the interest rate elasticity of aggregate demand, which reflects policy effectiveness. We show that as a result of underestimating policy effectiveness demand shocks can no longer be stabilized perfectly, thus resulting in inefficient inflation and output dynamics. In the presence of misperceptions, a negative demand shock leads to a prolonged period of negative inflation rates.     

Liquidity risk, economic development, and the effects of monetary policy

Empirical evidence indicates that monetary policy is not super-neutral in many countries. In particular, in high inflation economies, inflation is negatively related to economic activity. By comparison, inflation may be positively correlated with output in low inflation countries. We present a neoclassical growth model with money in which the incidence of liquidity risk is inversely related to aggregate capital formation. Interestingly, there may be multiple monetary steady-states where the effects of monetary policy vary. In poor economies, the financial system is highly distorted and higher rates of money growth are associated with less capital formation. In contrast, in advanced economies, a Tobin effect is observed. Since inflation exacerbates distortions from a coordination failure in the low-capital steady-state, individuals become much more exposed to liquidity risk. Consequently, optimal monetary policy depends on the level of development.     

Inflation bias and markup shocks in a LAMP model with strategic interaction of monetary and fiscal policy

This paper investigates the effects generated by limited asset market participation on optimal monetary and fiscal policy, where monetary and fiscal authorities are independent and play strategically. It shows that: (i) both the long run and the short run equilibrium require a departure from zero inflation rate; (ii) in response to a markup shock, fiscal policy becomes more aggressive as the fraction of liquidity constrained agents increases and price stability is no longer optimal even under Ramsey; (iii) overall, optimal discretionary policies imply welfare losses for Ricardians, while liquidity constrained consumers experience welfare gains with respect to Ramsey.     

Monetary policy, oil shocks, and TFP: Accounting for the decline in US volatility

An equilibrium model is used to assess the quantitative importance of monetary policy for the post-1984 decline in US inflation and output volatility. The principal finding is that monetary policy played a substantial role in reducing inflation volatility, but a small role in reducing real output volatility. The model attributes much of the decline in real output volatility to smaller TFP shocks. We also investigate the pattern of output and inflation volatility under an optimal monetary policy counterfactual. We find that real output volatility would have been somewhat lower, and inflation volatility substantially lower, had monetary policy been set optimally.     

A comparison of optimal policy rules prior to and during inflation targeting: empirical evidence from Bank of Canada

We examine policy rules that are consistent with inflation targeting (IT) framework in a small macroeconomic model of the Canadian economy. We set up an optimal linear regulator problem and derive policy rules to compare the dynamics of pre-IT and IT eras. We find that while the optimal monetary policy rule in the pre-IT period is best described with a loss function that attaches equal weight to price stability, financial stability and output stability; the IT era is dominated by the price stability objective followed by the financial stability and output stability, consecutively. Moreover, we do not find an explicit role for exchange rate stability in the objective function of the Bank of Canada for both monetary policy eras. We, then, compare the properties of the derived optimal rules with those of an ad hoc Taylor rule for the IT period. In response to inflationary shocks, Taylor rule brings down inflation rates more quickly compared to the derived policy rules, but at the cost of a higher sacrifice ratio and more volatile interest rates.     

Does money have a role in the inflation process? Evidence from Australia

Inflation, defined as a sustained increase in the price level, is considered a monetary phenomenon, as it can be explained within the framework of money‐demand and money‐supply relationships. In the extant literature, money growth is shown to remain causally related to inflation across countries and over time, irrespective of the exchange rate regime and stability of the money‐demand function. Nevertheless, emerging literature suggests a diminishing role of money in the conduct of monetary policy for price stability, especially under inflation targeting. Monetary policy in Australia under inflation targeting since 1993 is an example of policy that denies a relationship between money growth and inflation. The proposition that money does not matter insofar as inflation is concerned seems odd in both theory and the best‐practice monetary policy for price stability. This paper uses annual data for the period 1970–2017 and quarterly data for the period 1970Q1–2015Q1. It deploys both the Johansen cointegration approach and the autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) cointegration approach to investigate for Australia whether money, real output, prices and the exchange rate (non‐stationary variables) maintain the long‐run price‐level relationship that the classical monetary theory suggests in the presence of such stationary variables as the domestic and foreign interest rates. As expected, the empirical findings for Australia are consistent with the classical long‐run price‐level relationship between money, real output, prices and the exchange rate. The error‐correction model of inflation confirms the presence of a cointegral relationship among these variables; it also provides strong evidence of a short‐run causal relationship between money supply growth and inflation. On the basis of a priori theoretical predictions and empirical findings, the paper draws the conclusion that the monetary aggregate and its growth rate matter insofar as inflation is concerned, irrespective of the strategy of monetary policy for price stability.