House Price Index Construction in the Nascent Housing Market: The Case of China

Most existing house price index construction methods are developed mainly based on transaction data from the secondary housing market, and are not necessarily suitable for the nascent housing markets where a predominant portion of housing transactions are new units. Using the booming market in China as an example, we evaluate and compare the performances of three most common house price measurement methods in the newly-built housing sector, including the simple average method without quality adjustment, the matching approach with the repeat sales modeling framework, and the hedonic modeling approach. Our analyses suggest that the simple average method fails to account for the substantial complex-level quality changes over time of sales during our sample period, and the matching model fails to control for the effect of developers’ pricing behaviors when adopted in the newly-built sector, hence both are downward biased. Based on this finding, we apply a hedonic method, which allows us to control for both quality changes over time of sales and developers’ pricing behaviors, to 35 major newly-built housing markets and provide the first multi-city constant-quality house price index in China. The new index reveals that the current Chinese housing market is facing a greater risk of mispricing than reported by the existing official metrics.     

房价波动、金融稳定与最优宏观审慎政策

本文通过构建包含家庭住房抵押借款摩擦和银行贷款摩擦的动态随机一般均衡模型,重点考察了异质性冲击下房价波动对金融稳定的影响。研究发现,房价上涨会导致银行风险溢价及杠杆率显著上升,进而加剧金融体系的内在不稳定。为降低房价波动及维护金融稳定,选取两类宏观审慎政策工具进行逆周期调控实验,结果表明,在住房需求冲击下,金融管理部门应选取贷款价值比政策,且应对房贷积极调控,而对房价进行中性调控。在最终产品部门生产率冲击、房地产部门生产率冲击及跨期偏好冲击下,应选取资本充足率政策,但对房贷和房价调控力度的把握则存在差异。本研究为厘清房价波动对金融稳定的动态传导机制,以及金融管理部门如何选取宏观审慎政策工具以稳定房价并降低系统性金融风险提供了启示。     

房价预期与城镇居民家庭股市参与——理论探讨与微观经验证据

本文基于中国家庭金融调查数据,通过构建理论模型和实证检验分析了房价预期与家庭股市参与的关系,考察了行为金融偏差在房价预期影响股市参与过程中的作用,并根据背景风险、社会网络和户主特征进行异质性分析。结果表明:(1)房价上涨预期通过降低居民家庭的股票收益率预期和增加住房资产,进而降低居民家庭的股市参与概率和参与程度;(2)“心理账户”以及“有限关注”的存在显著弱化了房价上涨预期对家庭股市参与的负向作用;(3)房价上涨预期对股市参与概率和参与程度的负向作用在收入风险更高、健康状况更差、社会网络水平较低以及受教育程度偏低的家庭中更大。因此,稳定房价预期能够通过提升家庭股市参与,进而从需求角度促进股票市场的健康发展。     

住房价格、房屋购买与中国家庭杠杆率

本文基于中国家庭追踪调查的微观数据以及相匹配的城市层面的住房价格数据,从住房购买需求的角度,给出了一个近年来家庭杠杆率急剧上升的解释。利用中国家庭追踪调查的微观数据探讨了房价上涨对家庭杠杆率的作用机制以及潜在影响。结果表明,住房价格的快速上涨推动了家庭杠杆率的急剧攀升,从数量上看,房价每上涨1倍,样本期间的家庭贷款数额将会增长288.1%,家庭杠杆率将上升39.2%,而此部分贷款的增加主要来源于银行贷款而非私人借贷,由房价导致的家庭借贷数额和杠杆率的上升大概占到购房家庭总体借贷数额和杠杆率上升的90%左右。机制分析表明,住房价格的快速上涨刺激了家庭必需型和投资型住房需求,并提高了家庭的借贷意愿和风险偏好。分样本的探讨发现,这一效应对于非农户口家户以及有配偶和子女家户的影响更为明显。     

我国房价的货币因素与宏观影响的动态传导研究——基于TVP-SV-VAR模型的分析

我国房地产和金融市场发展使房价进入到货币政策传导渠道中,房价与货币政策中介变量、宏观目标变量间的关系呈动态变动。本文通过TVP-SV-VAR模型研究发现:与M2和信贷相比,社会融资规模与房价的关系更稳定,且对彼此波动的反应更强;近些年房价波动对产出、物价波动的边际效应减弱,对金融稳定的影响仍较大,房价对外部因素波动的敏感性有所降低。建议国家应坚持稳定房价的总基调,把好货币供给闸门,合理管控社会融资规模增量,加强房地产各项融资监管;各地方政府应根据本地人口流入和住房库存等实际情况,合理推进房地产业发展,在发挥其积极作用的同时,防范区域金融风险。     

财政压力、土地财政与区域房价的时空演化--基于GTWR模型的实证研究

通过分析财政压力与土地财政对区域房价的影响机理,来构建三者之间的关系模型,同时考虑到财政压力与土地财政对区域房价的影响存在时空异质性,采用GTWR模型对模型参数进行估计,研究了财政压力、土地财政对房价的直接效应与间接效应,并对其时空异质特征进行了实证研究。结果显示:财政压力、土地财政对房价整体上具有正向直接效应;财政压力通过土地财政对区域房价起到正向的间接效应;财政压力和土地财政及两者互动对房价的影响效应存在较大的时空差异,其中东部地区和中部地区由于较高的土地财政依赖而以间接效应为主,而西部地区则以财政压力对房价的直接效应为主。最后,提出相应的政策建议。     

银行信贷、房地产价格与经济增长的非线性关系研究——基于省际面板平滑转换模型的实证检验

选用中国2000~2014年31个省的面板数据,以银行信贷为转换变量,通过构建面板平滑转换模型对我国房地产价格与经济增长的非线性关系进行考察。研究发现：当信贷增长率低于28.74%时,房价增长率对经济增长产生比较显著的正向影响;当信贷增长率高于28.74%时,房价增长率对经济增长起到了明显的阻碍作用。因此,为了实现“稳定房价和保持经济平稳增长”的目标,央行应将信贷增速维持在低增长体制的最优区间中。同时,央行还应该改善信贷结构,鼓励和引导金融资源进行合理配置。     

住房价格、金融稳定与宏观审慎政策

本文通过建立包含异质性家庭、异质性厂商和金融机构的DSGE模型,分析对预期房价作出反应的货币政策和宏观审慎政策的传导机制和政策效果,研究不同政策的选择和协调问题。研究发现,首先,由于政策的作用范围不同,不同政策会对金融稳定和经济稳定产生不同影响。对预期房价作出反应的货币政策能够抑制住房需求和信贷供给,但也会抑制消费需求和产出;而对预期房价作出反应的逆周期LTV政策和逆周期资本充足率政策在应对房价波动导致的金融稳定问题时更加有的放矢。其次,外生冲击的来源会影响政策的选择和协调——当经济波动来源于需求冲击时,固定LTV政策搭配逆周期资本充足率的宏观审慎政策、不对预期房价作出反应的货币政策表现最优;当经济波动来源于供给冲击时,固定LTV政策搭配逆周期资本充足率的宏观审慎政策、对预期房价作出反应的货币政策表现最优。     

当前养老方式与未来养老意愿的关系研究

本文基于对湖北省的武汉市、宜昌市、荆门市、枝江市和建始县花屏镇、黄梅县孔垄镇已婚者的调查问卷与个案访谈,实证了当前中国社会实际的老年奉养方式,以及一般人基于不同立场所表达的对于老年奉养方式的偏好。研究结果显示,当前父母与已婚子女同住依旧占绝大多数,由子女提供生活费来源也是较为普及的经济奉养方式;站在不同立场考虑年老奉养问题时,得到不同的倾向性;目前的家庭结构与父母经济奉养的方式对个人未来的奉养态度也具有一定的影响作用。     

住房反向抵押改善老年人收入的定量分析

住房反向抵押贷款是一种新型的养老保障方式。用北京市的调查样本定量分析影 响老年人参与住房反向抵押贷款的因素表明,参与住房反向抵押贷款的老年人的收入改善程 度和老年人收入/住房价值的比率呈负相关性;对于老年人收入改善程度而言,住房反向抵押 贷款比卖大房换小房的效果要好。上述研究方法中的创新在于把老年人居住在自己住房里的 效用以租金的形式量化到老年人的收入中,相对全面地体现了老年人的福利状况。     

The Effect of House Price on Stock Market Participation in China: Evidence from the CHFS Microdata

This is an empirical study on the effect of house price on stock market participation and its depths based on unique China Household Finance Survey (CHFS) data in 2011 and 2013 including 36,213 sample households. We mainly found that, with an increase of one thousand RMB per square meter in macrohouse price, the probability to participate in the stock market will increase by 5.4% before controlling for wealth effect and 2.84% afterwards, indicating the existence of wealth effect. The participation depths of the stock-total asset ratio are expected to decrease by 0.23%, and absolute stock asset is observed to decrease by 5.8 thousand RMB in response to one thousand RMB increase of per square meter house price. The effect of house price on participation decision is also related to housing area, and the negative effect of house price on stock market participation depths gets more intense with the increase of the stock-total asset ratio.     

Controlling for Quality in House Price Indices

Given the importance of house prices it is not surprising that house price indices are used for many purposes. One of the factors that differentiates these indices is the house price determinants (such as structural characteristics and neighborhood quality) that are accounted for—that is, held constant. Indices are usually generated from house price regressions. It is shown that, regardless of the desired level of accounting, it is necessary to control for all significant determinants of house prices in these regressions to obtain unbiased estimates of the growth in house prices. An empirical example shows that not controlling for neighborhood quality can lead to substantial biases in estimates of house price appreciation rates even if the index does not account for this factor.     

Alternative Methods of Increasing the Precision of Weighted Repeat Sales House Prices Indices

Weighted repeat sales house price indices have become one of the primary indicators used to identify housing market conditions and to estimate the amount of equity homeowners have gained through house price appreciation. The primary reason for the acceptance of this methodology is that it derives a location specific (typically, census division, state or metropolitan area) average change in house prices from repeated observations of individual house prices. It is this repeat attribute that allows repeat sales price indices to claim that it is a preferable index which does a better job of holding quality constant. The amount of time between the two observed prices for a single property is determined by when the home transacts. Some homes transact twice in a period of months and others do not transact for decades. It is likely that individual house price appreciation rates vary from the mean appreciation rate, as estimated by the index, in a systematic fashion. In general, the longer the time between transactions the more variance there is in individual house price appreciation. This paper extends this concept to include new dimensions. For instance, houses that appreciate faster than the mean, as estimated by the index for that location, may experience a different variation structure than homes that appreciate slower. This process can be viewed as an asymmetric treatment of the variance of house price appreciation around the estimated index. In addition, the variance of expensive and affordable homes may also be different and time varying. This paper finds evidence that adding the dimensions of price tiers and asymmetry to the variance estimate has merit and does affect the estimated index as well as homeowner equity estimates. Homeowner equity estimates are especially sensitive to these added dimensions because they depend on both the revised index and the estimated variances, which are specific to each dimension considered—time between transaction, asymmetry, and price tier.     

收入差距与房地产价格泡沫：基于门槛效应研究

基于不同收入居民对住房消费品和投资品双重属性的偏好差异,结合居民的住房偏好特性,考量收入差距对房价收入比的影响。结果显示：收入差距对房价收入比的影响存在门槛效应：低于门槛值时,影响为抑制作用;高于门槛值时,影响转为促进作用,且随着收入差距进一步的扩大效应更为明显。鉴此,应聚焦缩小收入差距,合理引导居民住房消费与投资,以有效控制我国房地产价格泡沫趋势。     

Modeling the behavior of real asset prices

Recently there has been much research treating housing and other real assets as financial claims, primarily in order to value their derivative assets, such as mortgages and mortgage-backed securities. Real asset prices are then typically modeled as a lognormal process, in the same manner that has traditionally been applied to firm value. The service flow or implicit value of a house is thus considered, in analogy with stock dividends, to be a fixed proportion of the fluctuating house price. We consider the appropriateness of this formulation and draw some distinctions between real assets, such as a house, and investment enterprises, such as a firm. We then propose an alternative method of formulating the service flow and the price of real assets which seems more appropriate to the economic characteristic of such assets.     

房价调控、地方政府债务与宏观经济波动

在地方政府债务高企的背景下,房价调控能否使资本流向非房地产部门？房价调控如果触发地方政府债务违约,宏观政策应如何应对？本文基于中国宏观经济的特征事实,引入地方政府的土地财政行为,将房价变动与地方政府的偿债能力联系起来。研究表明,由于地方政府依赖土地出让和土地抵押贷款筹集收入,房价管控导致的地价下降会带来地方政府收入的下降,直接影响地方政府的偿债能力。如果地方政府债务不出现违约,那么房价管控带来的地价下降会降低地方政府从金融部门获得的抵押融资额,使非基建部门的融资成本下降,非基建部门投资和产出上升。而如果调控房价带来的地价下降导致地方政府出现债务违约,金融部门资产受损,使金融中介减少贷款和提高贷款成本,带来整个社会的信贷紧缩,经济中各个部门的产出大幅下降。进一步的政策分析表明,有必要在避免地方政府债务违约的同时,使用财政资金补充银行资本金等多种方式稳定金融中介的资产负债表,从而将房价调控对经济的负面影响程度降到最低。     

中国房地产市场价格泡沫与空间传染效应

本文使用对数周期性幂律(Log Period Power Law, LPPL)模型对房地产市场价格泡沫进行测度,运用空间计量模型对我国房地产市场价格泡沫和空间传染效应进行研究。LPPL模型认为由价格泡沫产生并最终破裂的金融市场与地震系统具有很多相似之处,即金融资产的价格呈周期性变化规律,价格持续上涨到临界状态直至反转。本文采用2010年6月至2017年11月间我国100个城市的房地产市场数据对各城市房地产价格泡沫进行测度和物理/经济空间传染效应研究。研究发现,LPPL模型能够对我国100个城市房地产价格泡沫进行甄别且主要存在两种泡沫状态:正向泡沫(房价持续上升)和反转泡沫(房价整体下降却存在反转点)。各个城市(地区)房地产价格具有较强的空间传染性;存在正向泡沫区域的空间传染性相较反转泡沫区域更为明显,在考虑经济空间测度而不是物理空间测度的情况下,各城市间的空间传染性更强。与现有文献不同,我们发现反转泡沫区域的新房价格指数特别是二手房价格指数的上升对周边城市的房地产价格指数存在强烈的正向推高影响。最后,本文发现城市的房地产调控政策在一定程度上抑制了房价传统影响(比如信贷、新房、二手房价等)因素的推高影响,但各城市房地产价格之间的联动变化特征应该引起监管部门的注意。     

How Much Extra Premium Does a Loss-averse Owner-occupied Home Buyer Pay for His House?

The dual role of houses as durable consumption goods and as financial investments makes the option approach a suitable method for evaluating them. When the buyer of an owner-occupied home spends a large amount of money on a house, he pays the bill to cover not only construction costs but also the premium for an at-the-money call on the house. With loss aversion, he believes that if the house price rises from its current price (i.e., the strike price), he may make a profit by selling the house. On other hand, if the house price drops, he just keeps the house to wait for a better selling price, and treats the house as a durable good that provides him with shelter. The dual role of houses enables the homebuyer to enjoy the upside potential from the viewpoint of investment, but to eliminate the downside risk from the viewpoint of consumption. As a result, we propose that homebuyers are often willing to pay more for a house as a call premium. In addition, both the homeownership constraint and the homebuyer??s ambiguity aversion will influence his subjective evaluation of the call.     

Risk Attitude and Housing Wealth Effect

This paper examines whether the housing wealth effect—the consumption change induced by house price appreciation is dependent upon households’ attitudes toward risk. A simple theoretical model is introduced to highlight a negative relationship between the wealth effect and risk aversion. The paper empirically tests for this negative relationship, using data from the U.S. Consumer Expenditure Survey. The investigation involves two steps. In the first step, we make use of households’ demographics and their risky and liquid asset holdings to estimate risk aversion. The Heckman correction model is applied to address the issue of limited stock market participation. For the second step, we construct pseudo panel data through grouping households by their birth years and their predicted values of risk aversion, and then, we estimate the responses of households’ consumption changes to house price fluctuations by risk-attitude group. Consistent with the prediction of the theoretical model, the estimation results suggest a significant negative relationship between the housing wealth effect and households’ risk attitudes. Households, who are less risk averse, experience greater consumption changes in response to house price appreciation.     

Breakeven Determination of Loan Limits for Reverse Mortgages under Information Asymmetry

Since the loan limit of a reverse mortgage is a major concern for the borrower as well as the lender, this paper attempts to develop an option-based model to evaluate the loan limits of reverse mortgages. Our model can identify several crucial determinants for reverse mortgage loan limits, such as initial housing price, expected housing price growth, house price volatility, mortality distribution, and interest rates. We also pay special attention to the important implication of mortgage lenders’ informational advantage over reverse mortgage borrowers concerning housing market risk. In reverse mortgage markets, the elderly borrowers typically hold far less, relative to the lenders, or no information about the lenders’ underlying mortgage pools. Such information asymmetry leads these two categories of market participants to generate different perspectives on the risk of the collateralized properties, which can be identified to be important in determining the maximum loan amounts of reverse mortgages. We further find that the maximum loan amount of a reverse mortgage decreases in the correlation between the returns on the pooled underlying housing properties but increases with the number of the pooled mortgages.