Using consumer perceptions to operationalize the service construct: Exploratory research in theory extension and validation

Despite the ascendancy of services marketing as a topic of interest, an absence of empirical validation measures and well-grounded research techniques in the area is evident. This article explores the need for marketing to develop an approach by which services marketing empirical research can be advanced. A methodology is proposed that operationalizes the service construct by identifying consumer perceptions of goods and services, and which provides a practical basis for conducting empirical research. Empirical evidence is offered that suggests strong reliability and face validity in support of this approach. © 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

营销情境中的心理契约及其测量

心理契约发轫于组织行为学研究，但心理契约在企业与顾客的营销情境中同样存在。在文献回顾基础上，本文将心理契约应用到营销情境中，界定了特定的概念内涵，开发设计了相应的测度量表，并通过调查数据分析，对量表的信度与效度进行了实证检验。     

关系营销导向:量表的重新设计与检验

基于关系营销理论和前人关于关系营销导向的论述与测量,针对关系营销导向测量中存在的问题,本文设计了一个新的关系营销导向量表,并以营销渠道中制造商与其经销商的关系为背景,检验和评估了新量表的信度与效度。结果发现:新量表在内部一致性、表面效度、内容效度、内敛效度、判别效度和工具效度等都达到了测量的要求。最重要的是,新量表修改了原有量表的用语,使其更符合关系营销导向的内涵,弥补了原有量表缺乏表面效度的缺陷。     

The benefits of using reduced item variable scales in marketing segmentation

This study investigated the use of two reduced item constructs in marketing research, Involvement Scale and Consumer Expertise and their relationships. Previous findings suggested that both constructs could use reduced items and that they would be useful as marketing segmentation tools. Response rates to consumer questionnaires are declining; therefore, shorter questionnaires in marketing communications are more likely to be completed. This study establishes the current reliability of using these two reduced item constructs in automotive research and tests their validity using triangulation questions. Data collection used a novel approach in which respondents to a motor show used the new Apple iPad to complete an online questionnaire. Results revealed that the reduced item constructs are reliable and valid and would be useful for research involving large ticket items. They would be particularly useful to researchers where they are used as part of, rather than the main focus of, the research.     

Comparing two diverse methods for generating perceptual maps: Multidimensional scaling versus the hand-drawn technique

Multidimensional scaling techniques have lately been subjected to criticism because of a supposed lack of reliability and validity. Yet, no alternative cognitive map-producing techniques have been suggested. The present research describes a graphic technique for developing cognitive maps and compares this technique to multidimensional scaling in terms of reliability and validity. The two techniques are also compared in terms of perceived subject difficulty in completing the tasks and the ability of each technique to predict future brand behavior.     

Heart rate variability in marketing research: A systematic review and methodological perspectives

Heart rate variability is a promising physiological measurement that accesses psychophysiological variations in response to a marketing stimulus. While its application spans diverse fields, there is a limited understanding of the usability and interpretation of heart rate variability in marketing research. Therefore, this hybrid literature review provides an overview of the emerging use of heart rate variability in marketing research, along with essential methodological considerations. In this context, we blend marketing mix framework with stimulus-organism-response theory, segregating the use of heart rate variability in various marketing research contexts. We follow the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) framework to reflect on 33 records obtained from six databases. Our findings suggest that 42% of studies used heart rate variability to investigate promotion-related topics. Overall, heart rate variability is mostly used in combination with Galvanic skin response (48%). Further, 39% of studies used non-portable systems for data collection. Last, using the theory characteristics methodology (TCM) framework, we identified six research avenues: (1) affective, cognitive, and sensorial constructs; (2) personality, thinking style, and demographics; (3) product experience; (4) advertising and branding; (5) correlation with immersive technologies; and (6) triangulation with other neurophysiological tools.     

Deconstructing the meerkat: fabular anthropomorphism,popular culture,and the market

Abstract

In this paper we attempt to create an understanding of fabular anthropomorphism of particular relevance to marketing communication. Through an examination of the religious, anthropological, rhetorical and marketing literature on personification and anthropomorphism we arrive at six principles that characterise the use of animals as symbols in instructional storytelling. We then examine the applicability of these principles by investigating the way in which meerkats have recently been used in popular culture and marketing communication. We find that our proposed definition of a marketing-orientated fabular anthropomorphism is broadly applicable and is helpful in understanding why certain anthropomorphic depictions will resonate with audiences and others will not.

Summary statement of contribution This research proposes a set of principles that help us to understand the way in which fabular instantiations of anthropomorphism can be successfully used in marketing communication. It presents a case study that demonstrates the applicability of the findings.     

On the Edge of Buying: A Targeting Approach for Indecisive Buyers Based on Willingness-to-Pay Ranges

Targeting the “right” consumers is a core part of marketing. Whereas existing techniques to identify these consumers use demographic or psychographic variables or behaviors such as response probabilities, a proposed new targeting approach builds on consumers’ incremental responses to identify them by their willingness-to-pay (WTP) ranges. These WTP ranges reveal a consumer as a definite buyer, a definite non-buyer, or an indecisive buyer. The proposed theoretical framework indicates that indecisive buyers offer the highest incremental responses to targeted marketing mix activities and thus should be the most preferred targeting group. A sequence of three laboratory experimental studies validates the proposed approach for targeted price discounts and non-price tactics. In addition, a large-scale field experiment involving a consumer engagement campaign that includes observed purchase behavior demonstrates the high external validity and applicability of this approach.     

服务企业全球营销战略维度研究及其量表开发

本研究在对以往制造企业全球营销战略维度和量表选择性继承和创新性发展的原则下,构建了服务企业全球营销战略维度,并开发出一套测度量表,最后通过220家服务性跨国公司的调研数据验证了量表的信度和效度,为后续学者的研究提供了良好的平台,为服务性跨国公司如何构建全球营销战略和提高全球经营绩效提供了借鉴.     

Children's Perceived Value: Conceptualization,Scale Development,and Validation

Perceived value among children is an important concept in consumer decisions, yet surprisingly no research has operationalized value for this consumer group. To address this omission, and following the guidelines of DeVellis (2016), this investigation reports the findings of a seven-stage process to develop a valid and reliable instrument for measuring perceived value among children aged 8–14 years. Value for children is conceptualized as a multidimensional construct capturing perceptions of what is received and what is given up, which differs from adult measures in terms of its composition and complexity. A 24-item scale is developed that shows internal consistency, reliability, construct validity, and nomological validity. We also demonstrate the validity of the new scale beyond an existing adult perceived value measure. Directions for future research and managerial implications of the new scale for studying children's consumer behavior are discussed.     

The importance of understanding the exchange context when developing a decision support tool to target prospective customers of business insurance

Companies use decision support tools that enable them to efficiently manage their customers. When targeting new prospective customers, companies need to be able to select those customers who are not only more likely to respond to their marketing activities but are also going to buy their products. There is a lot of research about customer relationship Management and the analytical models that can be used to effectively select and manage customers. There is however less attention that is given to the actual process of developing and building a marketing decision support tool. In this paper, we pay particular attention to the construction process of a marketing decision support tool. A key contribution of the paper is that we propose that companies should pay more attention to studying their exchange context and its unique features when they are developing analytical models to support marketing decisions. We illustrate the research contribution through the story of a company that is involved in the direct marketing of business insurance and faces the need to implement a better targeting model.     

Marketing performance assessment and accountability: Process and outcomes

Marketing accountability, and how it may be achieved via performance assessment and metrics, have been central topics in both the marketing literature and practice (Katsikeas et al. 2016). Recent developments in digital channels, the accompanying explosion of data and emergence of marketing automation, the globalization of markets, and the rise of customer experience as a key firm priority have further magnified interest in and the importance of understanding how potential marketing outcomes are and can be achieved (CMO Survey, 2021; Mintz et al., 2021). As a result, gaining clarity on how to design and manage performance assessment systems to deal with these issues has never been more important. This paper argues that further progress in this research domain requires a deep understanding of the marketing performance assessment (MPA) process to provide both a catalyst and foundation for the next generation of research. Although there has been considerable research in the areas of marketing metrics and marketing accountability, much less attention has been paid to the MPA process that links them. Yet, the MPA process is essential to successful marketing management. To address this, we first review past research in this broad domain to answer the “Where have we been?” question that identifies theneed for a new conceptual model. Second, drawing on research findings both within the broad MPA domain and allied areas within and outside of marketing, we develop and detail a new conceptual model of the MPA process and use it to identify what really needs to be known but is currently unclear in this domain (i.e., “Where do we need to go?”). Third, we suggest how these areas of needed inquiry may best be investigated (i.e., “How do we get there?”) by identifying new perspectives, theories, data sources, and analysis approaches that may be productively employed in future research.     

Internal market orientation and its influence on the satisfaction of contact personnel

To verify the dimensions, reliability and validity of internal market orientation (IMO) as a scale of measurement of internal marketing, and using it to measure the effect of internal marketing on the satisfaction of contact personnel. Interviews were carried out with all the cashiers of the 16 branches of a small, local credit institution. Because of the small sample size, partial least squares were used in the analysis of the data. The results show the validity and reliability of the IMO construct, formed by four of the five dimensions of the original scale. They also corroborate the causal relationships among the four dimensions, as well as the significant influence of the informal dimension of IMO on the satisfaction of contact personnel. The main limitation of this study is that it analyses a single financial entity, with the characteristics and behaviours that the latter has in its relationship with its employees. To achieve their organisational objectives, firms must adopt an orientation towards the employee, or internal marketing, on an equal plane to the traditional consideration of the external market. Also, the measurability of this internal orientation on the basis of the IMO scale makes available a valuable tool of planning and control in its implementation. This article verifies the validity and reliability of the IMO construct, and its influence on the satisfaction of contact personnel, in a different business sector and with a different research subject from those analysed hitherto by the literature. It also demonstrates the sequential type of relationship among the dimensions that form IMO.     

Measuring the performance of emerging businesses: A validation study

To identify and substantiate the correlates and antecedents of new venture performance, it is requisite to identify the most relevant performance dimensions and move toward the use of common measures of performance. Relevant, reliable, and valid measures of new venture performance are essential to explore vital relationships between independent variables and venture success and develop sound venture performance theory.In this paper we discuss three of the most common measurement approaches used in new venture performance research when only self-report data are available, and present a comparison of these approaches: (1) measuring firm performance in broadly defined categories, (2) the use of subjective measures of executive or owner satisfaction with firm performance, and (3) the use of subjective measures of firm performance relative to competitors. After discussing the relevance and potential benefits and drawbacks of each approach we use empirical data to examine and compare the availability, reliability, and relative validity of measures developed using these approaches.The sample consisted of manufacturing businesses (SIC codes 20–39) started or reorganized in the corporate form between 1980 and 1991 in nine counties in northwestern Pennsylvania's identified by a major marketing research service. Questionnaires were returned by primary respondents in 120 companies; complete matching firm performance data from a second respondent were returned for 45 of the firms.The pattern of results favors the use of two dimensions of venture performance: growth and business volume. The growth and business volume measures operationalized in this research have good availability and internal consistency and are superior to the satisfaction with performance and performance relative to competitors' scales in terms of content validity. Evidence of the external validity of the measures is provided by regression analysis showing independent variables identified and substantiated by previous research to be related to performance in the hypothesized manner.The satisfaction with performance index had a high disclosure rate, strong internal consistency, and relatively strong inter-rater reliability. There is little evidence supporting its external validity. With the exception of its negative relationship with the level of competition, none of the predicted relationships are substantiated.The performance relative to competitors' disclosure rate was somewhat lower as was the inter-rater reliability; however, it emerged as a strong independent construct with a high level of internal consistency. There was evidence for the external validity of this measure. The independent variables related to the performance relative to competitors' index are similar to those related to both the growth and business volume dimensions as predicted from previous theoretical work and research findings.In summary, this research makes several contributions to the new venture performance literature. First, when researchers are required to use self-reported measures of venture performance, growth and business volume are the dimensions of performance most familiar to and most commonly referenced by the founders. Second, it provides additional evidence for the accuracy and reliability of founder reported performance data. Third, it provides examples of specific measures with evidence that supports their relevance, availability, reliability, and validity. We believe this research can provide a base for future venture performance research. We hope that these findings will be used to help better our understanding of the dynamics impacting new venture performance and lead to improved managerial practice in emerging firms.     

Marketing flexibility measurement scale: conceptualization,development and nomological validation

The purpose of the study is to conceptualize, develop, and validate the marketing flexibility measurement scale for automobile companies. Development of measure starts with operational definition of the construct followed by generation of items and their content validation. Quantitative analysis, as per laid out procedure of scale development, is conducted for item refinement and reliability assessment. Both exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses are used in step-wise manner for the development of scale. A 26-item AUTOFLEX scale emerged after analysis showed good reliability, and provided evidence of content, convergent, and discriminant validity. Further, AUTOFLEX scale was assessed for its nomological validity by establishing its correlation with measure of market orientation. Study discusses managerial implications and future scope toward the end.     

The relative performance of different methods for selecting creative marketing personnel

Despite an increasing need for creativity in all corners of business, the spotlight of most recruitment and selection procedures has not shifted accordingly. Measures of creative ability that are to be used in practice should preferably be brief and operationally valid in the small and relatively homogenous pools of subjects that companies typically have to deal with. This article examines the performance of different assessment methods of creative ability in two small-scale hiring contexts, i.e., with prospective marketing employees (marketing students) and with current employees of a creative marketing agency. With prospective marketing employees, a combination of test ratings and student CV ratings of creative ability shows high operational validity. Supervisory ratings and self-ratings of creative ability are reasonable alternatives to test ratings for senior and long-time employees, but should be used with caution when junior employees and recent recruits are concerned.     

AUTOFLEX: marketing flexibility measurement scale for automobile companies

Undergirded by theoretical foundation of extant literature, this article conceives, conceptualizes, constructs, develops and validates marketing flexibility measurement scale (AUTOFLEX) for automobile companies. Study uses two stages of empirical data analysis in order to first develop and then validate AUTOFLEX scale. AUTOFLEX scale developed in this research is 26-item scale of six different dimensions: Price, Customer Orientation, Product, Place, Promotion and Structural Hierarchy. Scale confirms to various tests of reliability and validity as shown by exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. Study discusses direction of future research on marketing flexibility in addition to listing its limitations. Academic as well as managerial implications of AUTOFLEX scale are also mentioned in final section of study.     

Pop-Ups, Cookies, and Spam: Toward a Deeper Analysis of the Ethical Significance of Internet Marketing Practices

While e-commerce has grown rapidly in recent years, some of the practices associated with certain aspects of marketing on the Internet, such as pop-ups, cookies, and spam, have raised concerns on the part of Internet users. In this paper I examine the nature of these practices and what I take to be the underlying source of this concern. I argue that the ethical issues surrounding these Internet marketing techniques move us beyond the traditional treatment of the ethics of marketing and advertising found in discussions of business ethics previously. Rather, I show that the questions they raise ultimately turn upon questions of technique and the ways in which technologies can transform the fundamental means by which relationships are established and maintained within a social environment. I then argue that the techniques of e-commerce are indeed transforming the means by which businesses relate to consumers, and that this transformation is affecting the applicability of our previous ways of demarcating the imperatives determining the limits of accessibility between consumers and businesses. Properly addressing the ethical status of the techniques of e-marketing as such necessarily moves us to consider the changes that Internet commerce are having upon the norms that govern individuals in their relations with others.     

An Alternative Approach to the Measurement of Emotional Attachment

Emotional attachment (EA)—the emotional bond connecting an individual with a specific target—has been identified as an important construct within the marketing domain. Despite all the research, there is no consensus on how the construct should be measured. A major factor contributing to this confusion is that current definitions and, consequently, scales of EA focus on describing reactions toward specific referents of attachment rather than on capturing the extent of emotion an individual feels; hence, hindering construct validity. In this article, the authors scrutinized the concept validity of EA. After defining the construct, scale development procedures were followed to propose an alternative one‐dimensional scale that reflects the abstract nature of EA. Three studies support the scale's reliability as well as the discriminant, convergent, criterion, and nomological validity of the measure. The studies tested the scale under different marketing contexts. Moreover, by employing the new measure, the findings showed that EA and self‐concept maintenance (SCM) are related, yet different constructs. Specifically, the results showed that these constructs interact to predict willingness to pay (WTP) for a brand such that when SCM is low, WTP is predicted by EA. However, when self‐concept is high, the effect of EA on WTP is not that strong. This new scale will help researchers extend research on EA to a broader set of contexts, explore the relationship between EA and related constructs, develop nomological networks, and prevent the confounding of terms.     

Dual scaling and correspondence analysis of preferences, paired comparisons and ratings

The methods of dual scaling (DS) and correspondence analysis (CA) are used extensively in marketing research for analyzing categorical data. When applied to preferences, paired comparisons and ratings, dual scaling has been contrasted with correspondence analysis, as if the two techniques operated differently on these data. In this note, we show that correspondence analysis provides exactly the same solution as dual scaling once the data have been transformed by a so-called “doubling” with respect to the respondents.