Comparing heterogeneous consumption in U.S. and Japanese meat and fish demand

This article uses national, quarterly data to conduct an empirical analysis of pre‐committed meat and fish demand by U.S. and Japanese households using the generalized almost ideal demand system (GAIDS). Pre‐committed demand represents the component of demand that is insensitive to both income and price adjustments. U.S. consumers are found to hold significant positive pre‐committed demand for beef and pork, while Japanese consumers appear to possess significant, positive pre‐committed demand for beef and fish. This provides evidence to partially explain observed differences in Japanese and U.S. consumer reactions to nonprice and nonincome effects in beef, pork, poultry, and fish. In addition, based on in‐ and out‐of‐sample performance, the more general GAIDS is preferred to the almost ideal demand system (AIDS) for both the U.S. and Japanese demand systems. Results lend to improved demand modeling efforts and more complete understanding of true market forces at hand in meat and fish markets for these culturally diverse consumer groups.     

Effects of consumer cohorts and age on meat expenditures in the United States

Meat demand is likely influenced by the birth cohort and age of the individual. In this study, we examine the demand for beef, pork, poultry, and other meat in the United States using the 1984–2012 Consumer Expenditure Survey and the almost ideal demand system with the incorporation of age, period, and cohort (APC) effects. We find that the model with APC effects performs better than the models without APC effects. The results indicate that cohorts born in earlier time periods are expected to purchase significantly less poultry compared to cohorts born in later time periods, when they are measured at the same age. Over the life cycle, purchase of poultry is expected to increase with age while the opposite is true for red meat. We also find that the own-price elasticity for beef is highest among the products examined, while the own-price elasticity for other meat is lowest and the inclusion of APC effects increases the absolute value of the own-price elasticities for beef, pork, and poultry, but reduces the own-price elasticity for other meat. Our forecasts indicate that the aggregate poultry purchase will continue to increase until 2022, while the aggregate purchase of red meat will slightly increase until 2017, but will either decrease or stay at same level from year 2017 to 2022.     

全面建成小康社会对农村居民肉类消费的影响基于中国农村微观经济数据的实证研究

[目的]基于中国农村微观经济数据,分析全面建成小康社会对农村居民肉类消费的影响。[方法]文章运用恩格尔模型和考虑"零消费"问题的近乎理想需求系统模型(AIDS)的两阶段模型,对全国8个省份的农户数据进行实证分析。[结果]首先,肉类食品的需求收入弹性均为正值,农村居民肉类需求随着收入增长而增加。其次,肉类食品需求收入弹性存在差异,其中,禽肉收入弹性最大,牛羊肉收入弹性最小。再次,不考虑"零消费"问题时,牛羊肉的需求弹性被高估0.12～0.29,猪肉的需求弹性被高估0～0.02。最后,到达全面建成小康社会的标准时,目前低于收入标准的农村居民人均猪肉、禽肉和牛羊肉消费量将分别增加3.42kg、1.86kg和0.57kg,消费结构将进一步优化。[结论]全面建成小康社会将促进农村居民人均收入增长,进而扩大人均肉类消费量、优化肉类消费结构;农村家庭户主受教育程度与肉类消费具有正向相关关系。     

Meat demand in China: to include or not to include meat away from home?

This study examines meat consumption in China, the world's largest meat consumer and producer, by considering both meat consumed at home and away from home based upon a diary‐based household survey. The results indicate that income growth leads to beef, poultry, other meat and pork away from home consumption to grow more than proportionally to total meat consumption. We also find that meats consumed away from home grow faster than at home counterparts due to higher income elasticities, suggesting that ignoring meat away from home could significantly underestimate current and future meat consumption.     

Demand for animal‐derived food in selected Asian countries: A system‐wide analysis

Food consumption patterns in Asia show a trend away from staples toward high protein food derived from animal and dairy products, fruit and vegetables, fats and oils. Such changes in food consumption patterns are due to rising incomes, urbanization, globalization, and modernization of marketing infrastructure. In this article, we analyze the demand for the animal‐derived food group comprising meat (chicken, beef, pork, and mutton), eggs and fish, and derive income and price elasticities in seven Asian countries using the system‐wide approach. Demand homogeneity and Slutsky symmetry properties were tested and found to be compatible with the data. Our findings reveal that animal‐derived food as a group is a necessity (except in Taiwan) and its demand is price inelastic (except in Taiwan and Sri Lanka). The implied unconditional demand elasticities reveal that, in all countries (except beef in Japan and Taiwan), chicken, beef, pork, mutton, eggs and fish (except in Taiwan) are all necessities and the demand for all types of animal‐derived food in all seven countries are mostly price inelastic. The cross‐price elasticity estimates are mostly found to be positive, meaning that there is a higher degree of substitutability between chicken, beef, pork, mutton, eggs, and fish.     

Food scares, advertising, and the demand for meat cuts in Great Britain

Retail demand systems for 19 different cuts of meat for beef, lamb, pork, bacon and poultry in Great Britain are estimated from monthly time series of consumer expenditure from 1989-2000 using a two stage budget allocation process and an LA/AIDS specification. The unconditional expenditure, own and cross price elasticities are derived for the individual meat cuts. The impact of adverse publicity from meat scares, especially BSE, and of positive publicity through consumer promotion and advertising are incorporated into the modelling. Meat scares produced a reallocation of consumer spending from red to white meats during the 1990s. The impact of species-based advertising was shown to have complex spillover effects both within and between meat species, and the response of consumer demand to advertising was considerably less than to adverse publicity.     

An error correction almost ideal demand system for meat in Greece

This paper represents a dynamic specification of the Almost Ideal Demand System (AIDS) based on recent developments on cointegration techniques and error correction models. Based on Greek meat consumption data over the period 1958–1993, it was found that the proposed formulation performs well on both theoretical and statistical grounds, as the theoretical properties of homogeneity and symmetry are supported by the data and the LeChatelier principle holds. Regardless of the time horizon, beef and chicken may be considered as luxuries while mutton‐lamb and pork as necessities. In the short‐run, beef was found to have price elastic demand, pork an almost unitary elasticity, whereas mutton‐lamb, chicken and sausages had inelastic demands; in the long‐run, beef, and pork were found to have a demand elasticity greater than one, whereas mutton‐lamb, chicken, and sausages still had inelastic demands. All meat items are found to be substitutes to each other except chicken and mutton‐lamb, and pork and chicken.     

Decomposing Preference Shifts for Meat and Fish in the Netherlands

The changing preferences of Dutch consumers for meat and fish are investigated using a switching almost ideal demand system. Structural change in demand between January 1994 and May 1998 is decomposed into underlying trends, temporarily irreversible preference shifts triggered by the BSE crisis of March 1996, and a “panic” reaction against beef in the month of the crisis itself. Preference shifts due to the BSE scare reduced expenditure shares for beef, minced meat and meat products by 2.5, 3.3 and 7.9 percentage points respectively. There were offsetting gains in the shares of pork, prepared meat and fish. Taking underlying trends also into account, changing preferences over the whole period reduced beefs share by 4.9 percentage points and increased those of poultry, prepared meat and fish by 4.1, 4.9 and 5.2 percentage points respectively.     

Price and quantity endogeneity in demand analysis: evidence from directed acyclic graphs

We propose to use the emerging method of directed graphs to study price/quantity endogeneity issues in empirical demand analysis. The approach is illustrated through the examination of U.S. meat consumption. We find that for two major meat products (beef and poultry), retail prices contemporaneously caused quantities consumed, thus were predetermined. In contrast, the quantity consumed of pork appeared to be predetermined relative to its price.     

Activists and Animal Welfare: Quality Verifications in the Canadian Pork Sector

Animal welfare is an emotive topic. Although most governments legislate against outright animal cruelty, animal welfare organisations have actively lobbied for more stringent farm animal welfare regulations. Food retailers and restaurant chains have faced pressure from animal welfare organisations to implement more stringent animal welfare requirements for their suppliers. Is the demand for more stringent farm animal welfare protocols primarily determined by a subset of consumers with very strong preferences or does it signal a more fundamental underlying change in societal preferences? Given the credence nature of farm animal welfare, whom do consumers trust for credible quality assurances? This article analyses the role of quality verification in a market characterised by consumers with heterogeneous preferences for animal welfare. Of particular interest are the relative strength of preferences for humane animal treatment assurances and the credibility of these quality claims. Using data from a Canadian survey targeted at two distinct samples – a general population group and members of animal welfare organisations – a discrete choice experiment is used to assess consumer attitudes towards animal welfare assurances for pork products. The credibility of quality verification by public sector, private sector and third party agents is assessed. Evidence confirms that consumer preferences for farm animal welfare assurance and the source of verification are indeed heterogeneous. Although a portion of consumers remain largely indifferent to pork products with animal welfare assurances, a group of highly motivated consumers exist with an economic incentive to lobby for tougher animal welfare standards.     

Household behavior with respect to meat consumption in the presence of BSE and CWD

In this study, Canadian household meat consumption behavior in exotic (deer and elk meat) and traditional meats (beef, pork, chicken, turkey, bison, and seafood) is examined. This research introduces some differences in public response to transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSE) risks across consumer segments from different sources of meat supply, including hunted meat. The analysis uses a combination of survey and household meat purchase data that include a balanced household panel of 2,393 households per year across time. A two-step estimation procedure is used with a probit model in the first step (consume or not) and a doublelog–translog two-stage demand system in the second step (level of consumption). It is assumed and tested that household sociodemographics, consumers’ risk perceptions/attitudes, and media coverage of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) and chronic wasting disease (CWD) are underlying demand shifters in consumers’ daily meat purchase decision. The results suggest that households who obtain venison from hunting show the highest confidence in venison safety. Exotic meat preferences negatively affect traditional meat consumption in the daily diets of households who purchase traditional meats from stores and obtain venison from hunting. In response to the media coverage of BSE and CWD, exotic meat eaters are less sensitive to animal disease media information than the general population.     

Analysis of household attitudes toward the purchase of livestock products and fish in Cameroon

The need for additional information on household demand for meat and fish in Cameroon is addressed. Probit analysis involving the Heckman selectivity correction procedure is used to estimate the effects of individual and household characteristics on demand for beef, chicken, pork and fish. Results indicate that fish is a relative necessity in Cameroon and is often substituted for beef and chicken by households whose profiles include being of low income levels, having large household sizes, are of middle age and are less educated. Whereas chicken and pork substitute each other, they are each complementary to beef. The profiles of households likely to purchase beef include being married, middle age, educated and of the Muslim faith. Profiles for households most likely to increase their purchases of chicken include being of high income levels and are public sector employed. Some policy implications are provided.     

Price volatility and rational expectations in a sectoral framework commodity model: a multivariate GARCH approach

This article explores supply response models in a rational expectations framework with endogenous risk by using a multivariate generalized autoregressive conditional heteroskedasticity model with Cholesky decomposition. This approach allows the incorporation of price volatility as a risk factor into the supply response of a primary commodity sector that is composed of several markets of homogenous products. The model is applied to the Greek meat sector, which is composed of four major meat categories, that is, beef, lamb, pork, and broiler, and thus the model for the entire market includes supply and demand equations for all the four meat markets, which are estimated simultaneously. The empirical results confirm that price volatility is a significant risk factor in Greek meat production and also provide useful implications about the cost factors of production. Furthermore, the empirical findings show that the last reform of the Common Agricultural Policy seems to have had a negative effect on beef and lamb production in Greece.     

Characteristics and hedonic pricing of differentiated beef demands

We estimate a CBS system model of U.S. derived demand for meat. We use this model (1) to examine relationships between three quality categories of beef and three other meats and (2) to simulate how taste shifts have affected demands for meats over time. We extend previous studies by disaggregating wholesale beef production into three quality categories: (1) USDA Choice grade or higher, (2) USDA Select or lower, and (3) cow and bull beef. Innovative features of our empirical model include a breakout of ‘table cuts’ into Choice and Select and the use of a hedonic characterization of the two breakouts to value “Choice‐ness” and “beef‐ness.” Our model demonstrates important shifts in separate demands for Choice and Select beef. We show that, separately, the demand for Choice‐grade beef declined in the 1980s and 1990s and the demand for Select beef increased, a departure from the relatively stable demand characterizations of more aggregated measures of combined Choice and Select beef.     

Asymmetry in beef,lamb and pork farm-retail price transmission in Australia

The hypothesis of asymmetry in price transmission within the Australian meat market is tested using monthly data for beef, lamb and pork prices at different market levels over the period 1971–1988. The results indicate that asymmetrical price response is a strategy used by beef and lamb retailers and wholesalers to adjust to changing input prices, but not by pork retailers and wholesalers. This difference is perhaps unexpected given the similarity in behaviours relating to price levelling in this market, the high cross-price elasticities of demand between these meats, and the relatively greater degree of concentration in the pork market.     

非洲猪瘟疫情对我国肉类价格影响的区域异质性研究

[目的]非洲猪瘟疫情暴发导致猪肉等畜产品市场供需结构性、区域性失衡,进而导致肉类价格大幅波动,不利于畜牧业高质量可持续发展。[方法]文章通过构建覆盖全国30个省（市、区,不含港澳台、西藏）,包括猪牛羊和白条鸡四大肉类价格和非洲猪瘟疫情指数的动态面板数据,运用面板向量自回归模型（PVAR）,研究非洲猪瘟疫情对猪肉等主要肉类价格的冲击和影响在重点、约束、适度发展区和潜力增长区(1)的区域异质性。[结果]（1）非洲猪瘟疫情对不同区域不同肉类价格的影响存在着正负向不趋同的方向性差异,在冲击程度大小和时滞期上均存区域异质性;（2）区域间和区域内不同省份间猪肉等肉类生产流通和供需形势、及非洲猪瘟发生发展程度的差异是非洲猪瘟疫情对这些肉类价格冲击影响异质性产生的主要原因。[结论]非洲猪瘟疫情对肉类价格影响存在较为明显的区域异质性,亟需进一步优化生猪等畜牧产业布局,加快形成区域协同发展格局;健全动物疫病防控体系,建立多方协同联动机制;完善市场风险预警调控机制,加快实现产需顺畅匹配,确保畜产品市场总体平稳运行和畜牧业健康可持续发展。     

A markup over average cost pricing rule for meat and poultry in the United States

This paper tests the hypothesis that meat and poultry wholesalers choose their inventory levels together with wholesale price so as to maximize profit made over the sales time of their stock. The behavioral assumption predicts that markup over average cost will match the inverse of the price elasticity of the sales time of inventory. Price elasticity of inventory sales time is estimated for beef, pork and poultry accounting for the simultaneity between these pricing decisions by adopting a systems approach. The estimated range for the inverse of these elasticities includes all the markups applied over the sample range of the time series.     

One Man's Meat … 2050? Ruminations on Future Meat Demand in the Context of Global Warming

This Address considers a range of issues relating to the contribution of meat consumption and livestock production to global warming, given the need highlighted by the Committee on Climate Change (CCC) to reduce global GHG emissions by over 50% by 2050. The IPCC Climate Change 2014 report recognised that demand oriented measures may also contribute to GHG mitigation. The paper reviews a number of studies which examine demand‐led mitigation potentials, and concludes that such estimates ignore the market effects of changes in meat consumption habits or demand oriented policies. A simple partial equilibrium model of beef, poultry, pig and ovine meats is developed for the major regions of the world to explore the impact of a range of scenarios which might reduce meat consumption and GHG emissions. These include emissions taxation, long‐term trends in reduction of red meat consumption in developed economy regions, and supply side improvements in livestock emissions intensities. The paper discusses problems associated with many published demand elasticities suitable for incorporation into a market model, problems of selection from widely varying published estimates and their appropriateness for longer‐run projections. The dearth of published supply elasticity estimates is also highlighted. The modelling concludes that economic and population growth to 2050 without any mitigation measures will lead to a 21% increase in per capita meat consumption and a 63% increase in total consumption and GHG emissions by 2050. However, the mitigation projections from the scenarios explored only generate a 14% reduction in cumulative emissions from the baseline 2050 projections, insufficient to meet the CCC target.     

Gradual Structural Changes of Meat Consumption in Taiwan

Abstract

This paper utilized a linear approximate version of the Almost Ideal Demand System to evaluate structural changes of meat consumption in Taiwan. Time transition paths for each product were identified, and the first-order autocorrelation was taken into consideration. Structural changes of beef consumption were completed before structural changes of other products had started. Shifts in consumption patterns of pork and poultry took about the same length of time. Structural changes of fishery products occurred toward the end of the time period. With the gradual switching time paths, estimated elasticities revealed that own-price elasticities for pork, beef, and fishery products became more responsive to their own-price changes.     

Assessing Consumer and Producer Preferences for Animal Welfare Using a Common Elicitation Format

We assess pig farmers’ willingness‐to‐accept (WTA) higher farm animal welfare (FAW) standards and consumers’ willingness‐to‐pay (WTP) for thus enhanced standards. The analysis is based on discrete choice experiments with nearly identical choice sets for both farmers (N=140) and consumers (N=554). Based on preference estimates from a random parameter logit (RPL) model, supply and demand curves for high‐welfare pork in Germany are estimated and market equilibria are derived for alternative levels of FAW. We find that estimates of consumer WTP are significantly positive for all FAW attributes: consumers value more surface space per pig, more bedding and manipulable material, less surgical interventions and shorter transportation times. In contrast, our model revealed significant producer WTA estimates only for surface area per pig and the amount of bedding material on offer, but not for the other FAW attributes. Farmers who expect to continue farming and engage in direct marketing are more likely to adopt higher FAW standards. Male consumers and those who find price more important than brand, origin or taste are less likely to buy high‐welfare pork, as are consumers who never purchase organic meat products. Market simulations for high‐welfare pork indicate increasing divergence between demand and supply with rising FAW standards. We estimate a market share of 44.6% for pork produced in compliance with an entry‐level FAW programme with standards only slightly above the legal minimum. Programmes with more demanding standards are estimated to gain much smaller market shares.