Agrarian Poverty,Nutrition and Economic Class – A Study of Gujarat,India

This paper analyses poverty and calorific undernourishment in the Indian state of Gujarat, where high and market‐led industrial growth has resulted in rapid economic improvement. The study is carried out through a combination of secondary and survey‐based data. We conclude that the neoliberal agenda of uncontrolled, outward‐looking growth has not resulted in significant reduction of poverty or malnourishment in rural areas. Furthermore, while land ownership is officially used as a proxy for wealth distribution, class position appears a better predictor of poverty status in the rural areas than landownership per se. At the policy level, there is a need to revive the agrarian economy and create new non‐agricultural assets, and the primary focus in the state must shift to the distribution of created assets rather than a single‐minded focus on growth.     

The economic role of Russia's subsistence agriculture in the transition process

In this article, we analyze the role of subsistence‐oriented agriculture in Russia in the 1990s. We start out by discussing the diverging economic effects of the growth of subsistence agriculture in Russia since the transition process started. The quantitative analysis of this sector's role is carried out by means of an applied computable general equilibrium (CGE) model applying a 1994 social accounting matrix (SAM) as base year data. The novelty of the article is to disaggregate primary agricultural production not by products but by farm types, which enables us to distinguish their institutional and economic characteristics. The model also explicitly differentiates between marketed and subsistence consumption or formal and informal marketing activities of agricultural producers. We simulate two ex post and two ex ante experiments. The results of the first backward‐looking experiment highlight that Russia's subsistence agriculture was an important buffer against further agricultural output declines during transition and, hence, against food insecurity. A simulation, which looks into the effects of a devaluation of the Russian ruble, shows that the financial crisis should have increased the relative competitiveness particularly of large‐scale crop farms versus small‐scale farms. Two forward‐looking experiments indicate that efficiency enhancing institutional change would benefit both large‐scale and small‐scale farms. However, within small‐scale agriculture, a shift from subsistence to commercial agriculture would take place.     

Men wielding the plough: Changing patterns of production and reproduction among the Balanta of Guinea‐Bissau

This paper is centred on the fast‐track changes occurring among the Balanta of Guinea‐Bissau—at present, the only ethnic group in West Africa still able to produce a mangrove swamp rice surplus with a manual plough—in their traditionally intensive farming system and their social organization, and on the consequences that these changes have had for gender relations, especially with regard to married women's spatial mobility, sexual and economic independence, and access to land, labour, and capital. In doing so, the paper contributes to old debates about the relationship between means of production and gendered power dynamics in contexts where African societies based on domestic modes of production progressively embrace the market economy. The Balanta case offers a new layer of complexity to this debate due to their long‐term resistance to westernization and market integration, their particular conjugal relations, and the paradoxical way in which women have been losing their traditional rights.     

Small‐scale commodity frontiers: The bioeconomy value chain of castor oil in Madagascar

The European Commission defines the bioeconomy as a “transition economy which seeks to increase efficiency, optimize use and decrease environmental impact through the reduction of waste and greenhouse gas emissions.” However, attempts to substitute or control nature through efficient bio‐based technology have not lived up to expectations and much of the industry still relies on globally sourced biomass to drive the bioeconomy. This article examines the social and political economic relations surrounding small‐scale production of the feedstock castor oil plant (castor, Ricinus communis) in the deep south of Madagascar. Theorizing the bioeconomy through the lens of a “small‐scale commodity frontier,” it builds from recent injunctions by Jason Moore to show how the appropriation of cheap nature (including paid and unpaid labour) is both historically and geographically co‐produced. The castor value chain is held up as a way to transform regional economies and a “silver bullet” to alleviate poverty and address food security in some of the most economically marginal areas of Madagascar. We adopt a regional and feminist political ecology approach to illustrate what is behind this discursive cloak of “development imaginaries,” making visible the social relations surrounding castor production and demonstrating the historical marginalization involved in producing the frontier.     

Rural Chile Transformed: Lights and Shadows

Rural society in Chile has undergone profound change over the past few decades. For centuries, large haciendas had dominated Chile's Central Valley. The agrarian reforms carried out by Frei and Allende – and to a greater extent the counter‐reform of Pinochet – transformed that property structure with its generalized system of agricultural production for the domestic market. Recently, there has been a marked shift in emphasis towards specialization, exports and off‐farm agricultural resources. A seasonal labour market has arisen, employing predominantly female workers, whose precarious work conditions stand in marked contrast to the success of Chilean agricultural exports. This paper reviews the main trends in Chilean agriculture and rural society, drawing on data gathered principally in Colchagua Province, which is known for its fine export wines.     

What socioenvironmental impacts did 35 years of export agriculture have in Mexico? (1980–2014): A transnational agri‐food field analysis

In this article, I propose to study environmental degradation and the deterioration of the health of workers and other inhabitants in regions of Mexico where intensive fruit and vegetable production for export has been developed. My proposition is that to understand the unsustainability of such agricultural practices in all their complexity, it is necessary to analyse historically the total agri‐food field of relations established by producers, distributors, and consumers in codependency with the natural environment. This analysis of the agri‐food field allows a multidimensional and multiscale study to be conducted of the hierarchical distribution of power and of economic benefits among the different social actors of the food system. This analysis also allowed us to study the development of the capitalist regime without going into the dichotomy of centre and periphery and to propose that it is a decentralized process with a multiplicity of locations that operates on the basis of mutual associations and influences between human and non‐human elements, with the active participation of a great variety of independent, collective, and institutional actors who have differentiated motivations, ranges of power and scales of value. The case study of Mexican export agriculture was the result of long‐term research based on a wide review of regional studies, field work statistics, and archives in Mexico and the United States. This cross‐border study makes it possible to identify asymmetrical transnational relations in a context in which the Mexican government has renounced its territorial and agri‐food sovereignty and Mexican consumers face greater vulnerability.     

Labour Migration and Gendered Agricultural Relations: The Feminization of Agriculture in the Ejidal Sector of Calakmul,Mexico

We examine the nature of the ‘feminization of agriculture’ in the semi‐subsistence, peasant production sector of southeastern Mexico, as associated with male labour out‐migration. Presenting findings from empirical work with smallholder producers, we discuss the impact of men's migration to the United States on women's participation in agriculture and gendered relations of agricultural production. In 2007, we conducted a survey of 155 semi‐subsistence, smallholder households in six ejidos. This survey was supplemented by ethnographic research in a single ejido. Our findings demonstrate the need to distinguish between farm labour and management in this sector, and the potentially significant (but focused) changes in the local relations of agricultural production wrought by gendered patterns of labour migration – specifically in tenure, land‐use decision‐making and the management of hired labour.     

Rural Economies and Transitions to Capitalism: Germany and England Compared (c.1200–c.1800)

Based on a synthesis of the empirical scholarship on England and Germany, this paper demonstrates that in both regions, rural socio‐economic developments from c.1200 to c.1800 are similar: this period witnesses the rise to numerical predominance and growing economic significance of the ‘sub‐peasant classes’, which had a growing impact on the market as a result of their increasing market dependence, and from which – towards the end of the period – a rural proletariat emerged. Against the influential theory of Robert Brenner, it is argued that the period c.1200–c.1400 cannot really be categorized as ‘feudal’ according to Brenner's definition; and ‘agrarian capitalism’ does not adequately describe the socio‐economic system that obtained by the end of the sixteenth century. A genuine transition to capitalism is only evident from after c.1750, and can be found in Germany as well as in England; it is predicated both on ideological shifts and on the evolution of the rural proletariat, which is only found in large numbers by or after c.1800.     

Contract farming and everyday acts of resistance: Oil palm contract farmers in the Philippines

Contract violations are critical issues determining the success and sustainability of contract farming (CF). This paper challenges the common portrayal of the “powerful” company versus the “powerless” landowners/smallholders by using the literature on labour agency in global value chains to understand minor contract violations of contract farmers such, as side-selling, refusal to harvest, and burning/felling of oil palm trees. This paper conceptualizes these violations as acts of minor agency or everyday acts of resistance. The analysis highlights how CF has created chains of dependency, in which smallholders are integrated into the modern market economy through new relations of debt and power. In response, contract farmers attempt to influence and shape the CF relation by using these different acts of minor agency. This paper finds that acts of minor agency, in the aggregate, can have important effects on contract relations, governance, and organizational structure of the chain and has the potential to lead to broader changes in the underlying social relations of contract. It highlights how individual acts of minor agency may contribute to the development of a consciousness of collective opposition to the contract relation.     

Economic development, institutional change, and the political economy of agricultural protection An econometric study of Belgium since the 19th century

This empirical study uses 100 years of annual data on 11 agricultural commodities from Belgium to measure the impact of structural changes coinciding with economic development and changes in political institutions on agricultural protection. The analysis shows that changes in agricultural protection are caused by a combination of factors. Governments have increased protection and support to farmers when world market prices for their commodities fell, and vice versa, offsetting market effects on producer incomes. Other economic determinants were the share of the commodities in total consumer expenditures (negative effect) and in total output of the economy (positive effect). With Belgium a small economy, there was no impact of the trade position. Changes in political institutions have affected agricultural protection. Democratic reforms which induced a significant shift in the political balance towards agricultural interests, such as the introduction of the one‐man‐one‐vote system, led to an increase in agricultural protection. The integration of Belgian agricultural policies in the Common Agricultural Policy in 1968 coincided with an increase in protection, ceteris paribus. Both institutional factors, related to changes in access to and information about the decision‐making at the EU level, and structural changes in the agricultural and food economy may explain this effect.     

THE EROSION OF AGRICULTURAL EXPORTS IN AN OIL ECONOMY: THE CASE OF NIGERIA

After several years of oil production and exports with attendant revenue influx, the sector is yet to make a significant impact in Nigeria's economic growth. Contrary to the hopes and expectations that greeted the oil discovery, the non-oil export sector of the economy, more specifically the agricultural sector, has been declining consistently with further increases in oil exports. This paper is intended to provide an empirical analysis of an aspect of structural change that has taken place in the Nigerian economy. The hypothesis investigated is that an increase in oil exports results in higher relative prices on non-tradeable to tradeable goods and an appreciation of the domestic currency, hence a loss of the competitiveness of the agricultural export sector in the international market. This phenomenon, popularly known as the ‘Dutch disease’, has been vigorously discussed in the United Kingdom, Norway and the Netherlands, has also received much attention from Australian economists in relation to minerals.     

农业生产风险对区域经济的影响分析

[目的]农业作为国民经济的基础产业对区域经济的发展至关重要,两者之间存在相互影响和相互制约的耦合关系。文章通过对作用于农业生产活动的主要因子对区域经济的影响研究,以期筛选出两者相互作用的关键因子,为规避或降低农业生产风险、协调经济发展提供理论基础。[方法]通过选取作用于农业生产活动的36个作用因子,对农业生产风险因子对区域经济的影响程度进行综合评分,采用层次分析法分析各指标对农业生产与区域经济影响的重要程度。[结果](1)市场需求量、农民人均纯收入、农业机械化总动力、市场价格动态、农作物种类和面积、农药化肥施用量、农田有效灌溉面积、单位耕地面积粮食产量、干旱、温度、洪涝、农业机械自动化、交通运输条件、农业信息化、农业技术推广程度等是重要性排序为前15位的风险因子。(2)随着农业机械自动化、农业信息化和农业技术推广程度的进步,干旱、温度和洪涝等风险因子对农业生产造成的产量风险随之降低。而市场需求、市场价格动态等对农业生产的作用风险在扩大,特别是在区域经济发展不稳定、发展不平衡的情况下更为突出。(3)政府财政对农业的投入、投资的规模和结构以及对农产品价格和流通的干预则影响到农业生产经营、地区生产总值和GDP的增长速率;且农业资源利用程度、栽培环境的保护以及农业环境污染的保护和治理则是区域经济可持续发展的重点。[结论]通过测度不同评价指标对农业生产的影响程度,指出作用于区域经济的关键风险因子,对降低和规避农业风险,协调农业与区域经济的稳定、可持续发展具有重要意义。     

Contrasting Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches to Rural Development Analysis: The Case of Agricultural Intensification in Lebanon

While peripheral rural regions in Lebanon face typical problems of lagging development and economic marginalisation, they have not been regarded as a priority for policy‐makers. Local extensionists have encouraged technological innovation as a means of improving farmers’ livelihoods, and this has led to increasing input use and an intensification of agricultural production. This paper applies contrasting quantitative and qualitative methodologies to analyse the effects of such changes at the level of the overall economy of Lebanon and also to explore the impacts on rural households. A computable general equilibrium (CGE) model simulates shocks in which agricultural output increases due to different types of intensification. The results are contrasted at local level through the use of qualitative case study analysis carried out in the Hermel district of northeast Lebanon. Quantitative simulations indicate that, while agricultural intensification has a positive effect overall on the Lebanese economy, the effects on rural households and the income of farmers are negative. The case‐study interviews demonstrate that, at local level, agricultural trade liberalisation, increased agricultural output and greater volatility of commodity prices have resulted in farmers opting for lower input use and more secure market forms of production.     

基于空间计量模型的耕地利用转型对农业经济增长影响研究

研究目的:分析耕地利用显性转型和隐性转型各形态对湖南省农业经济增长的直接效应和溢出效应。研究方法:投影寻踪模型,空间自相关,空间计量模型。研究结果:(1)农业经济增长、耕地利用显性转型和隐性转型及各形态存在空间关联性;(2)耕地空间位置相邻性导致耕地利用转型各形态对农业经济增长不仅存在直接效应,还产生了影响相邻县域的溢出效应,即本县域农业经济增长1%,相邻县域农业经济将会增长0.28%;(3)耕地利用显性转型各形态对农业经济增长的直接效应和溢出效应高于隐性转型各形态,显性转型中耕地数量形态对农业经济增长的直接效应、溢出效应分别占到总效应的96.47%、34.97%。研究结论:应在合理配置各类生产要素的基础上,开展县域间耕地利用与管理等方面的合作,提升耕地利用转型各形态对本县域和邻近县域农业经济增长的促进作用。     

完善集体土地产权保障农民权益

农村集体土地制度是农业经济制度的基础,土地产权制度则是土地制度的核心.随着社会主义市场经济的完善及政治、经济体制改革的深入,作为三大生产要素之一的土地已进入经济活动中心.但现行的农村集体土地产权制度不太完善,为此,改革集体土地产权制度,保障农民的集体权益,已成为当前亟待解决的重要问题.在分析现行土地产权制度存在问题的基础上,提出今后完善集体土地产权制度的思路.     

Effects of the Energy Crisis on French Agriculture between 1974 and 1984

The effects that the energy crisis has had on the relatively energy-intensive French agriculture are discussed in this paper for the period 1974–1984. The economic significance of energy in agriculture and the economic effects of higher energy prices are examined. An analysis is made of developments in the use of different sources of energy in the agricultural sector: savings in petroleum products used for heat production, diversification of fuel sources for heating, growing consumption of wood for space heating, and increased use of electricity. The effects of the energy crisis on France's agricultural economy, particularly with regard to farm income, the choice of sites for agricultural production, and trade in agro-food products are discussed. Finally, a detailed breakdown is given of the changes in the use of production factors, caused by the increase in energy prices. Agriculture appears to have become more economical or more efficient.     

The right place to grow rice for the Japanese market: comparative analysis of greenhouse gas emissions of rice cultivation in Japan and the United States

One consequence of increasing agricultural trade is a shift of geographic location of agricultural activity to more economically productive countries. Whether or not the economic efficiency translates to environmental efficiency for agricultural goods is an open question. To examine environmental implications of shifting agricultural location, we analysed the life-cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of rice production in Japan and the US for the Japanese market in a comparative manner. This paper presents the life-cycle assessment of brown japonica rice. Our computation of GHG emissions of rice production in Japan and the US were 3.54 and 2.99?kgCO₂-eq kg-rice^?1, respectively. With respect to harvested area, the emissions were 18.4 in Japan and 27.8?tCO₂-eq ha^?1 in the US. For Japan to be environmentally competitive with the US production, fundamental restructuration of field size is necessary to increase yield. In conclusion, economic efficiency does not translate to environmental efficiency with the case of rice production. Importing rice is both economically and environmentally viable option for the Japanese market.     

Agricultural reforms in Central and Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union Status and perspectives⋆

The current status of the agricultural sector in Central and Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union is described, in the context of reforms undertaken during the transition from a centrally planned economy to a market‐based one. Sectoral performance is analyzed, focussing especially on general trends in production, and emerging trading patterns. Five critical basic elements of reform are described, and a table is presented rating each country in the study on progress in completing each type of reform. Overall conclusions are presented, indicating that in each basic element of reform, the CEE countries have achieved considerably more success than those of the CIS. The paper concludes with a discussion of prospects for development in the region.     

Socio‐economic differentiation from a class‐analytic perspective: The case of smallholder tree‐crop farmers in Limpopo,South Africa

South African agrarian policy aims to integrate smallholder tree‐crop farmers into high‐end value chains with growth and employment potential, generally neglecting socio‐economic differentiation amongst them. This paper aims to analyse socio‐economic differentiation amongst tree‐crop farmers in Vhembe District, Limpopo, using a class‐based analysis based on livelihood diversification and accumulation. Cluster analysis of survey data and semi‐structured interviews reveals that most tree‐crop farmers engage in petty commodity production, internally differentiated by their combination of income sources and livelihood strategies. Farmers' ability to engage in accumulation and upward class mobility is generally severely constrained by limited access to capital. Agricultural diversification offers livelihood potential but limited possibility for accumulation, whereas salaried nonfarm work offers more promising prospects for accumulation but limited livelihood opportunities. A minority demonstrated characteristics of small‐scale capitalist farmers, internally differentiated by their reliance on salaried employment or agricultural production. The findings challenge the notion of an undifferentiated class of market‐oriented smallholders.     

The value components of contract farming in contemporary capitalism

Contract farming (CF) has generally been understood as, essentially, a market institution—by both (approving) “mainstream” and (critical) “radical” perspectives. Analyses of relations of production have, meanwhile, tended towards a problematic “peasantist” frame, where contracts undermine farmer “autonomy” in processes of “flexible” corporate agro‐industrial restructuring. This paper argues that a materialist analysis of CF from within capital–labour relations offers a stronger conceptual foundation for re‐synthesizing questions of market‐power. It first argues that radical notions of “peasant subsumation” conceptually mirror Marx's “formal subsumption of capital” but underplay dynamics of “real subsumption” accompanying capitalism's wider development. Drawing on the “petty commodity production” concept, it then argues that CF's “flexibility” rests in its differential content. CF's fungibility to contradictory movements of “integration” and “dispersion” enables it to emphasize different methods of surplus appropriation under shifting conditions; each corresponding to a different dominant social tendency. On the one hand, conditions of market expansion inspire integration for relative surplus appropriation through raised productivity, and CF tends to act as a “tool of proletarianization” in the wider centralization of capital. On the other, conditions of contraction motivate the dispersal of unvalorized capital, prompting efforts to raise absolute surplus appropriation, and CF tends to act as a “tool of differentiation” to concentrate agricultural capital.