The Ultimate Glass Ceiling Revisited: The Presence of Women on Corporate Boards

Has the diversity of corporate boards of directors improved? Should it? What role does diversity play in reducing corporate wrongdoing? Will diversity result in a more focused board of directors or more board autonomy? Examining the state of Tennessee as a case study, the authors collected data on the board composition of publicly traded corporations and compared those data to an original study conducted in 1995. Data indicate only a modest improvement in board diversity. This article discusses reasons for the scarcity of women on boards and concludes that, to enhance strategic decisions, board membership should reflect the corporation's consumer population. Thus, women are a critical but overlooked resource. Areas for future research are also considered.     

Women on Corporate Boards of Directors: A Needed Resource

This research reports the results of a study of women serving on boards of directors of Canadian private and public sector organizations. These women (N = 278) were an impressive and talented group (eduction, professional designations). In addition, they brought a variety of backgrounds and expertise to their director responsibilities. Most were nominated as a result of recommendations from current board members, CEOs, or someone who knew board members or CEOs. Thus personal relationships (the old boy's network) as well as track records and appropriate expertise were important factors in board nominations. Women directors thought they had some influence on women's issues with their boards and board companies. A majority believed that board members should be more diverse, including more women and fewer male CEOs. However they indicated several barriers faced by women in being selected and nominated for board appointments.     

Women Directors on Corporate Boards: From Tokenism to Critical Mass

Academic debate on the strategic importance of women corporate directors is widely recognized and still open. However, most corporate boards have only one woman director or a small minority of women directors. Therefore they can still be considered as tokens. This article addresses the following question: does an increased number of women corporate boards result in a build up of critical mass that substantially contributes to firm innovation? The aim is to test if ‘at least three women’ could constitute the desired critical mass by identifying different minorities of women directors (one woman, two women and at least three women). Tests are conducted on a sample of 317 Norwegian firms. The results suggest that attaining critical mass – going from one or two women (a few tokens) to at least three women (consistent minority) – makes it possible to enhance the level of firm innovation. Moreover, the results show that the relationship between the critical mass of women directors and the level of firm innovation is mediated by board strategic tasks. Implications for both theory and practice, and future research directions are discussed.     

Women on Corporate Boards of Directors and their Influence on Corporate Philanthropy

This study examined the relationship between the proportion of women serving on firms' boards of directors and the extent to which these same firms engaged in charitable giving activities. Using a sample of 185 Fortune500 firms for the 1991–1994 time period, the results provide strong support for the notion that firms having a higher proportion of women serving on their boards do engage in charitable giving to a greater extent than firms having a lower proportion of women serving on their boards. Further, the results suggest a link between the percentage of women on boards and firm philanthropy in the areas of community service and the arts, but found no link between women boardmembers and firm giving to support education or public policy issues. The implications of the findings and some areas for future research are discussed.     

Women in the Boardroom: How Do Female Directors of Corporate Boards Perceive Boardroom Dynamics?

This study investigated how female directors of corporate boards of directors (BoD) experience boardroom dynamics. The study represents an initial research trend that moves from a unilateral focus on financial outcomes of female representation in BoDs toward stronger attention on the social dynamics in the boardroom. Drawing on social identity theory, the study proposed that female directors often constitute an out-group within the BoD, preventing them from experiencing positive board dynamics. More specifically, the study explored the extent to which female directors do experience less justice, lower cohesion, and higher levels of conflicts within the BoD than their male counterparts do. Moreover, we assumed that female directors with nontraditional educational backgrounds would be particularly likely to experience negative boardroom dynamics whereas female chairpersons of BoDs would perceive boardroom dynamics more positively than other female directors. The sample consisted of 491 directors from 149 BoDs. Our findings revealed that there were generally few differences in the way female and male directors experienced boardroom dynamics and female chairpersons of BoDs did not perceive the dynamics differently than other female directors. Female directors with nontraditional educational backgrounds perceived the boardroom dynamics somewhat more negatively than other female directors, but the differences were not statistically significant. The conclusions from this study are that there are reasons to believe that female directors are welcomed into boardrooms, not perceived as out-groups, and BoDs are able to benefit from the female directors’ experience and skills.     

Women’s Roles on U.S. Fortune 500 Boards: Director Expertise and Committee Memberships

This study examines the presence and roles of female directors of U.S. Fortune 500 firms, focusing on committee assignments and director background. Prior work from almost two decades ago concludes that there is a systematic bias against females in assignment to top board committees. Examining a recent data set with a logistic regression model that controls for director and firm characteristics, director resource-dependence roles and interaction between director gender and director characteristics, we find that female directors are less likely than male directors to sit on executive committees and more likely than male directors to sit on public affairs committees. There is little if any evidence of systematic gender bias in director assignment to other board committees. We find some evidence that boards evaluate resource dependence differently for women than men. Craig A. Peterson Western Michigan University, Grand Rapios, MI 49503, USA Craig A. Peterson is associate professor of finance at Western Michigan University, Grand Rapids Regional Center. In addition to corporate governance, his research interests include investment management and corporate finance. James Philpot is assistant professor of finance and general business at Missouri State University. His research interests include corporate governance, financial planning and financial education.     

Effects of Diversity on Group Decision-Making Processes: The Moderating Role of Human Resource Management

Past empirical studies have demonstrated that differences among group members may have both positive and negative effects on decision-making processes. As direct models have failed to explain such intricate consequences, recent work has begun to propose models that are more complex by including mediating and moderating variables. In general, the literature has assumed that the extent to which differences between members benefit group decisions depends on certain conditions in the unit, especially its management. Drawing on a literature review, we find that the human resource management system can be one of these moderators. Using the estimates of a structural model, we discuss how certain choices in the definition of human resource policies can help the organization to improve decision-making processes in diverse groups.     

Leader and Organizational Behavioral Integrity and Follower Behavioral Outcomes: The Role of Identification Processes

Journal of Business Ethics - This qualitative field study is based on interviews with 20 experienced audit partners in France and documents the dialogical dimension of ethical deliberation in...     

Gender and Ethnic Diversity on Boards and Corporate Responsibility: The Case of the Arts Sector

This study provides insights on sector-specific characteristics, challenges and issues that affect corporate responsibility (CR) in relation to ethnicity and gender on arts boards. Using stakeholder theory, the study explores how arts board composition (e.g. gender and ethnicity) sets the scene for dynamics that affect CR. Data analysis is based on interviews with 92 board members and stakeholders sitting on 66 arts boards in Australia. Results suggest that the dynamism of gender and ethnic diversity on arts boards makes them responsive to CR; however, their presence does not always lead to CR. For diverse boards to lead to CR, our findings indicate the significance of board member attributes of passion, skill and capability of developing networks, irrespective of gender and ethnicity. The article advances understanding of the implications and relevance of ethnic and gender diversity on non-profit boards and contributes to an important yet under-researched body of literature.     

欧洲女性高管：责任增加薪酬“降低”

本文摘选自欧盟委员会网络发布的工作报告，该报告于2011年年中完成。欧盟委员会网络根据国际标准职业分类，在多个欧盟成员国对从事职业标准分类里的11和12项（立法者、高级官员；公司经理）工作的女性的单位小时平均收入进行了调查，并与其男同事收入进行对比。调查显示，居于管理职位的女性收入低于其男性同行。     

Organizational Music the Role of Listening in Interaction Processes

The paper focuses on consumer cynicism in online environments, using the anti‐Christmas sites of the Internet as an empirical case. Drawing on the discursive power model of consumer resistance, critical management studies on organizational cynicism, and Foucauldian ideas of political struggle as “politics of self,” it is argued that consumer cynicism, in online environments, may represent a form of resistance against markets and the marketing institution, which is brought about through the problematization and partial rejection of the normalized forms of consumer subjectivity that are offered in the marketplace. The paper illustrates how consumers employ a cynical rhetoric and discursive strategy, creatively drawing from the story of Ebenezer Scrooge, to problematize the received, highly commercialized ways of celebrating Christmas and to work on a cynical identity project, the scrooge, which represents an alternative form of consumer subjectivity, disillusioned and critical toward the market and the marketing institution.     

The Representation of Social Actors in Corporate Codes of Ethics. How Code Language Positions Internal Actors

This article understands codes of ethics as written documents that represent social actors in specific ways through the use of language. It presents an empirical study that investigated the codes of ethics of the German Dax30 companies. The study adopted a critical discourse analysis-approach in order to reveal how the code-texts produce a particular understanding of the various internal social groups for the readers. Language is regarded as social practice that functions at creating particular understandings of individuals and groups, how they are interrelated, and how they should behave. Findings show that codes of ethics do not represent employees as a group that is empowered or morally enlightened; instead they are positioned as passive receivers of rules and regulations. Furthermore, codes of ethics classify employees as having a need to be monitored and controlled by the higher levels of the corporate hierarchy. Overall, code language enforces compliance through maintaining existing and building new asymmetries between the different groups within a company. As a consequence, the article discusses a somewhat different understanding of code effectiveness. Reproducing and reemphasizing hierarchical relations could also lead to code compliance, perhaps without any need for developing the moral employee that is committed to ethical values.     

Role Models and Women Entrepreneurs: Entrepreneurial Superwoman Has Her Say

It is suggested that more “role model” women entrepreneurs are needed. However, the gender gap in entrepreneurship remains. This study analyses the narratives of 51 role model women entrepreneurs to explore how they represent women entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship. We found that in accordance with the contemporary pressure for women to succeed and perform personally and professionally, the voice of the (super)woman doing “individualized entrepreneurial femininity” dominates. The role models narratives obscure race, class, and age barriers; reproduce prevailing gender stereotypes; normalize discriminatory workplace treatment and depict entrepreneurship as an appropriate alternative for working mothers. Implications for policy makers are presented.     

Increasing market power in Slovenia: Role of diverging trends between exporters and non-exporters

This paper documents the evolution of markups in a small open economy, Slovenia, using a comprehensive data set covering the full population of firms. It makes three novel contributions to the literature. First, in contrast to other work for Europe, we find that markups have increased from 1.05 to 1.19 between 1994 and 2015. Second, while other research so far found exporters typically to have higher markups, we find the opposite in Slovenia. Though the rise in markups occurs both with exporters and non-exporters, there is a consistent diverging trend in markups in favour of non-exporters since 1999. This can be attributed to increased competitive pressure faced by exporters following the comprehensive trade liberalisation after 1999 and their increased participation in global value chains. Third, we decompose aggregate markups and show that the increase in markups, for both exporters and non-exporters, is mainly driven by the within component rather than the reallocation effect. This suggests that all firms were increasing their markups, rather than high-markup firms increasing their market share over time.     

Female Representation on Corporate Boards in Europe: The Interplay of Organizational Social Consciousness and Institutions

Journal of Business Ethics - We examine the role of alignment between organizational social consciousness and the informal and formal institutions of a country in increasing female representation...     

The Process of Business Relationship Ending – Its Stages and Actors

How to describe a process of business relationship ending, while considering both the aspects of time and the multiplicity of actors involved? The process of ending consists of actions performed by the actors, as well as their perceptions and decisions concerning the future of the relationship and the consequences they have on the relationship. A longitudinal, dyadic case study is used to empirically ground a process framework. The model distinguishes six stages in the ending process and depicts different actor levels involved. The process model helps to understand the events and actions that end the relationship.     

The Carrot or the Stick: Self-Regulation for Gender-Diverse Boards via Codes of Good Governance

Journal of Business Ethics - Scholars have emphasized the potential of self-regulation, realized through ‘codes of good governance’, to improve gender diversity on boards. Yet,...