Key factors for successful leisure and tourism public transport provision

In the second half of the 20th century, the main focus of transport policy and transport studies was on the reduction of the use of motorised, individual transport, in particular with regard to daily commuter traffic. The main concepts concentrated on creating an attractive public transport supply and, where possible, improving the infrastructure for non-motorized traffic in order to open up alternative forms of travel. Although these concepts produced noticeable effects on everyday travel, they could not cope with steadily rising problems in the field of leisure traffic. Therefore, primarily supply oriented, autocratic desktop transport policies cannot be seen as a promising approach within the leisure context.Consequently, the article focuses on the necessary key factors for successful leisure and tourism public transport provision. It stresses the need for rethinking transport policy by choosing a demand oriented approach and realising the importance of additional accompanying efforts in the areas of marketing, transparency and quality. Focusing on the demand side, with its individual attitudes and preferences, leads to a new understanding of traffic planning by adopting a bottom up, rather than a top down approach.     

Public transport strikes and traveller behaviour

In many countries strikes hit the public transport sector from time to time. Public transport strikes are important for transportation research because they can impact upon the perceived reliability of public transport services. Moreover, the traveller's most preferred alternative is removed from the choice set. The traveller is forced to make up his mind about his preferences; doing so may induce a shift from inert, habit-driven behaviour to rational behaviour. In this paper we review 13 studies of strikes in the public transport sector, discuss criteria that determine the kind and size of the effects of a public transport strike, and present the results of a survey carried out after a short, unannounced railway strike in the Netherlands. Our survey confirms the results of other studies. In the short-term mainly captive travellers are affected; these are mostly commuters without alternative modes of transport who are highly inflexible in their departure or arrival times. As a result, on average 10–20% of the trips are cancelled. Most travellers switch to the car (either as driver or passenger) and as a result road congestion increases. Longer-term effects include a decrease in market share for public transport, which various studies estimate to be between 0.3 and 2.5%. The effect of a strike on public transport rider-ship can be temporary or permanent, depending on the type of strike and the policy response to it.     

The desired quality of integrated multimodal travel information in public transport: Customer needs for time and effort savings

Travel information is one of the factors that contribute to the quality of public transport. In particular, integrated multimodal travel information (IMTI) is expected to affect customers’ modal choice. The objective of this research is to identify customers’ desired quality of IMTI provision in public transport. Customers’ desired IMTI quality can vary throughout the pre-trip, wayside and on-board stages of a journey. The main determinants are time savings (travel and search time) and effort savings (physical, cognitive, and affective effort). In a sample of Dutch travellers with a substantial share of young persons, the pre-trip stage turns out to be the favourite stage to collect IMTI when planning multimodal travel; desired IMTI types in this stage are used to plan the part of the journey that is made by public transport. Wayside IMTI is most desired when it helps the traveller to catch the right vehicle en route. On-board travellers are most concerned about timely arrival at interchanges in order to catch connecting modes. In the whole travel process, travel time is the most important saving. Apart from that, pre-trip search time savings are also desired, while en route affective effort is more important than cognitive effort.     

The quality of service desired by public transport users

This article describes the methodology used to study the quality of service desired by users of a public transport system. The desired quality is different from the perceived quality because it does not represent the daily experiences of the users, but rather what they desire, hope for or expect from their public transport system. This is why it is important to study the desired quality, knowledge of which gives local authorities the background information for personalised marketing policies based on the user’s requirements rather than their daily perceptions. The methodology goes through several stages, such as the use of focus groups to choose the most important variables for the users, the design and use of unlabelled stated preferences surveys and the calibration of discrete choice models. All of these help determine the weight of the most relevant variables. The analysis is carried out with different categories of users and potential users (those people not currently using public transport).Waiting time, cleanliness and comfort are shown to be the public transport variables that users most valued, but the degree to which they are valued varies according to the category of user. Variables such as driver kindness, bus occupancy and journey time are generally given less weight. The first two vary little by user category, but some variability appears for journey time.For potential users the more important variables when defining expected quality from public transport are waiting time, journey time and above all, level of occupancy. They consider the other variables to be of little importance when defining an efficient public transport service.In order to improve service quality and attract more passengers to public transport in general, the application of this methodology provides the authorities and operating companies with useful information to plan personalised marketing policies specifically directed at different categories of users and potential users of public transport.     

The decline of the regionally based UK deepsea tramp shipping industry

This paper discusses the reasons for the decline of the regionally based UK deepsea tramp shipping industry post 1975. Specifically, it is intended to explore beyond the market forces perception of competitive failure. This is achieved by examining a wide range of determinants — organisation, business behaviour, market structure. Additionally, the contrast with the relatively successful coastal shipping entrepreneur is made.This approach contributes to improved understanding of the sector and its markets — a vital prerequisite for any future initiatives on UK shipping.     

The effect of public ownership and deregulation in the Scandinavian airline industry

We analyse why deregulation resulted in a temporary strong reduction in prices in Sweden, whereas in Norway the prices did not change significantly. SAS and Linjeflyg merged when the Swedish market was deregulated, whereas attempts to merge SAS and Braathens SAFE did not succeed. Upon deregulation in Sweden some of the carriers operating charter markets or regional secondary routes decided to enter the main routes. This put pressure on prices. Similar entries did not take place in the Norwegian market. We analyse whether the duopoly between SAS and Braathens SAFE is characterised by tacit collusion.     

Distributional effects of public transport subsidies

We analyze the distribution of transit subsidies across population groups in Stockholm. We develop a novel methodology that takes into account that the subsidy per passenger varies across transit links, since production costs and load factors vary. With this, we calculate the subsidy per trip in the transit network and analyze the distribution of subsidies across population groups. The average subsidy rate in Stockholm is 44%, but the variation across trips turns out to be large: while 34% of the trips are not subsidized at all but generates a profit, 16% of the trips have a subsidy rate higher than 2/3. We calculate the concentration index to explore the distribution of subsidies across income groups. The average subsidy per person is similar for all income groups, except for the top income quintile. This holds not only for the current flat-fare system, but also for distance-based fares and fares with a constant subsidy rate. Transit subsidies is hence not effective as a redistribution policy in Stockholm. The largest systematic variation we find is across residential areas: the average subsidy per person is five times higher in the peripheral areas of the region compared to the regional core, and the subsidy per trip is ten times higher.     

Measuring the vulnerability of public transport networks

In the last years, studies on the vulnerability of public transport networks attract a growing attention because of the repercussions that incidents can have on the day-to-day functioning of a city. The aim of this paper is to develop a methodology for measuring public transport network vulnerability taking the Madrid Metro system as an example. The consequences of a disruptions of riding times or the number of missed trips are analysed for each of the network links with a full scan approach implemented in GIS (Geographic Information Systems). Using real trips distribution, each link in the network is measured for criticality, from which the vulnerability of lines and stations can be calculated. The proposed methodology also makes it possible to analyse the role of circular lines in network vulnerability and to obtain a worst-case scenario for the successive disruption of links by simulating a targeted attack on the network. Results show the presence of critical links in the southern part of the network, where line density is low and ridership high. They also highlight the importance of the circular line as an element of network robustness.     

Socio-technical transition governance and public opinion: The case of passenger transport in Finland

As a governance perspective, transition management views the engagement of a wide variety of stakeholders in policy development as a necessary element in furthering sustainability through enhanced social learning. Yet as a literature it has paid relatively little attention to public consultation on socio-technical change. Here we set transition management in the context of longstanding debates in science and technology studies, technology assessment and deliberative democracy. Empirically, we use national survey data on Finnish public opinion of state support for future transport options. Showing how transport practices and attitudes to transport innovation policy vary with both demography and geography, we argue that these differences have implications for policy legitimacy. We suggest that, both given and despite the practical difficulties of deliberative democracy, use of participative opinion surveying to better understand social groups with needs and interests that differ from national averages, may help to enhance policy legitimacy and hence the success of transition management.     

Modeling public transport corridors with aggregate and disaggregate demand

Microeconomic public transport models aimed at maximizing social benefits usually consider demand in an aggregate manner. In this paper we examine the effect of this approach on the optimal values of frequency and vehicle size by comparison with models where demand is described in detail as a matrix of flows between every station in a single line service. The theoretical analysis and the numerical examples suggest that the spatially aggregated model underestimates optimal frequency and overestimates vehicle size.     

Tax and green transport plans: a survey of UK experience

The widespread adoption of Green Transport Plans (GTPs) by employers has become an important aim of the UK government transport policy as it tries to find ways of reducing transport demand. However, the tax treatment of employee benefits that form part of many GTPs has been identified by the government and others as a potential barrier to their adoption. Based on telephone interviews with employers and meetings with tax and transport experts, this paper confirms this perception. It also explains precisely how tax forms a barrier to GTP implementation, reviews the approaches taken to this problem in three other countries and makes outline proposals for reform and further research.     

Modelling growth principles of metropolitan public transport networks

The development of metropolitan public transport networks often involves choosing between investing in extending radial lines or constructing ring connections. While the former enlarges network coverage the latter enhances network connectivity and reduces the need to perform detours. Moreover, investments might be better directed at increasing the capacity of already existing infrastructure. In this study we address the following question: how do transport networks in metropolitan areas evolve over time and how can we effectively model this growth as function of demand and cost function? The goal of this study is to determine the fundamental relations between population distribution, modal costs on the prevailing network structure and its evolution. The approach taken in this study offers a theoretical contribution to the field of transport network growth by combining principles from several research streams: transport geography, economics of network growth and network science. We propose an iterative investment model network analysis framework. The results of the network growth experiments manifest an overall trend in network growth with an early phase of expansion of the network, followed by a period of intensification manifested in capacity increments and finally adding some links that contribute to its densification. Furthermore, our findings suggest that bus networks include more ring-radial connections than Light Rail Train and Metro networks which are more concentrated on radial connections.     

Rapid charging provision,multiplicity and battery electric vehicle (BEV) mobility in the UK

This paper provides significant new insights into the spatial heterogeneity of public rapid charging provision for Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) in the UK. In particular, the paper makes three new and original contributions to our understanding of BEV mobility and the importance of rapid chargers and the multiplicity of rapid charging provision therein. First, the paper sets out a new conceptual framework which captures the different dimensions of BEV mobility. Second, the paper highlights the importance of multiplicity, recognising the important distinction between i) ‘on-site’ multiplicity; and ii) spatial multiplicity in rapid charging provision. Both have received relatively little attention to date yet are highlighted as being fundamental in shaping an individual's ability to undertake extended journeys by a BEV. Third, the paper highlights how the development of charge point multiplicity is currently largely restricted to large urban areas and strategic road networks with current policies focusing on enhancing BEV infrastructure along the TEN-T Trans-European Comprehensive Transport Network. In considering spatial multiplicity in relation to the “reserve range” of BEVs, the paper identifies spatial variations in road network connectivity. Limited interconnectivity in rural areas - and which is particularly apparent for lower range BEVs - reflects an emerging market failure with the potential to undermine efforts to secure a “just transition” to BEVs     

Measuring traveler involvement in urban public transport services: The case of Kaohsiung

The city of Kaohsiung has been urgently reducing its rates of ownership and usage of privately owned motor vehicles. The most important strategy undertaken thus far has been to build mass rapid transit systems. This study aims to apply the Involvement Theory to construct an inventory to measure level of travelers’ involvement in public transport services. The results indicate that the number of low involvement travelers is the critical factor that determines whether the new public transport system can effectively operate. They also provide authorities with precise marketing strategies targeting different groups in order to allow the new public transport systems to sufficiently meet public needs.     

The value of specific cargo information for substitutable modes of inland transport

Communication about containers onboard a cargo carrier approaching a harbor with a hinterland operator who is to receive the containers usually reveals the total amount of goods (aggregate number of containers) to be transported inland upon unloading at the arrival dock. This communication is useful for the hinterland operator to plan and deploy its transport capacities. However, further transport of containers on the hinterland involve various transport modes at differing costs. For example, the delivery time requirement of a container dictates the most appropriate mode of inland transport, be it truck, rail, or barge, in decreasing order of speed, flexibility and cost, to move the container to the next destination. In general there may be several types of delivery time requirements and containers of each type is most economically moved inland in a corresponding transport mode. Trucking is usually used for containers that need urgent delivery and train or barge for not so urgent types. In order to efficiently plan the transport capacities for after-arrival conveyance of containers having multi-type delivery time requirements, not only should the aggregate number of containers, but also the number of containers of each type, be made available to the hinterland operator. We consider several information scenarios and in each scenario we solve a single-period capacity planning serving multi-type demands with product substitution. We then compare expected transport costs between information scenarios to evaluate the benefit of specific cargo information in improving the next-step transporting after containers are unloaded at the port of entry.     

Quantity price discrimination in the air transport industry: The easyJet case

This paper extends the literature on low-cost carriers' pricing strategies by investigating the presence of quantity price discrimination implemented through a two-part tariff in offered fares. By analysing Internet fares for all easyJet flights departing from the Amsterdam Schiphol airport between March and April 2015, we search for price differentials based on the number of seats booked by a single consumer. We find that the lowest average unit price is associated with a single consumer reserving 5 seats. On average, the per-seat discount for a single consumer reserving 5 seats is €9.48, which is 14% of the single-seat fare. Additionally, a multivariate analysis shows that quantity discounts are greater for flights with a larger fraction of available seats at the time of booking, the seats are booked longer in advance, and the destination's gross domestic product per capita is greater. Conversely, quantity discounts are lower for longer routes, larger destination airports, and routes for which easyJet's market share is higher.     

Funding for local authority transport and land-use schemes in the UK

This paper focuses on the research activities, findings and planned products of one of the UK EPSRC-funded DISTILLATE (Design and Implementation Support Tools for Integrated Local Land use, Transport and the Environment) projects on the funding of transport and land-use schemes. Research activities have included a literature review, dialogue with local authority case studies and a funding workshop. The research identified and explored a range of barriers to funding, including lack of revenue funding, difficulties in obtaining funding for ‘soft’ schemes, the formation of partnerships and timing-related issues. The research also revealed that the funding system is failing to meet the needs of the current transport policy focus on managing travel demand, rather than being a supply-led process. The key project outputs are described, which include a ‘funding toolkit’ for local authorities, and guidance for funding bodies regarding the barriers faced.     

A nonparametric efficiency analysis of German public transport companies

In this paper, we present a nonparametric comparative efficiency analysis of 179 communal public transport bus companies in Germany (1990–2004). We apply both deterministic data envelopment analysis (DEA) and bootstrapping to test the robustness of our estimates and to test the hypothesis of global and individual constant returns to scale. We find that the average technical efficiency of German bus companies is relatively low. We observe that the industry appears to be characterized by increasing returns to scale for smaller companies. These results would imply increasing pressure on bus companies to restructure.     

The demand for public transport: The effects of fares,quality of service,income and car ownership

This paper reports on key findings from a collaborative study whose objective was to produce an up-to-date guidance manual on the factors affecting the demand for public transport for use by public transport operators and planning authorities, and for academics and other researchers. Whilst a wide range of factors was examined in the study, the paper concentrates on the findings regarding the influence of fares, quality of service and income and car ownership. The results are a distillation and synthesis of identified published and unpublished information on the factors affecting public transport demand. The context is principally that of urban surface transport in Great Britain, but extensive use was made in the study of international sources and examples.     

Understanding and managing anti-social behaviour on public transport through value change: The considerate travel campaign

This article explores anti-social behaviour on public transport, regarded as a major problem by most transport authorities in Britain. It has been estimated that a passenger increase of more than 11.5% in Britain could be achieved if public concerns over anti-social behaviour could be allayed. The article starts by noting that combating anti-social behaviour has generally been seen as the remit of police and enforcement officers. However, research carried out for Transport for London indicates that for the majority of the travelling public, the forms of anti-social behaviour, which concerns them is more likely to be low-level behaviour, ranging from groups of young people behaving boisterously to people eating food or talking loudly on mobile phones.Using the ‘problem solving approach’ structure, the article then examines the process by which Transport for London has partially ‘uncoupled’ anti-social behaviour from criminal activities and then treated the two issues as related but distinct. As a result, a series of policing and enforcement initiatives have been introduced to prevent crime, but a different, unique approach has been taken towards controlling anti-social behaviour. Rather than being tackled as a form of low level criminality, anti-social behaviour is viewed as the outcome of clashing values about appropriate behaviour on public transport. Therefore, the answer to anti-social behaviour lies in minimising these values clashes, rather than concentrating on enforcement against perpetrators. The article describes the resulting large-scale media campaign—the Considerate Traveller Campaign, which was launched in 2008 with the aim of increasing tolerance and consideration for others.The article concludes with a summary of the early evaluation of the campaign, which suggests that it is having some positive effect in changing values and argues that in the longer run, it may be possible to amend the behaviour on public transport without relying so heavily on enforcement measures.