New markets and technological change for the traditional cereals in semiarid sub-Saharan Africa: the Malian case

During the last three decades in sub‐Saharan Africa, development and research resources have concentrated on the higher‐rainfall and irrigated regions, especially on export crops and the principal food crops grown there. There has been much less concern and investment in semiarid regions without irrigation. Another negative factor has been the lack of public policy concern with the profitability of the basic food crops. With good weather, prices collapse. With bad weather, governments and NGOs dispense food crops as food aid or at subsidized prices. This article documents the importance of the demand side to facilitate diffusion of new technologies for the basic food commodities of semiarid regions—the traditional cereals. With farm programming models aggregated into a sector model, the combination of technological change and demand shifts for sorghum are evaluated in one semiarid region where the traditional cereals are concentrated. It focuses on combining policies to increase the prices farmers receive after introduction of technologies that use higher input levels. It also compares benefits of a strategy that focuses on yield and demand increases for a traditional cereal of the semiarid region, sorghum, with two alternative strategies for the higher‐rainfall zone.     

Farm share of the food dollar: an IO approach for the United States and Canada

This article develops a method for using input–output data to calculate a farm share estimate for all food rather than the typical approach of estimating a price spread for an individual product. The farm share of the food dollar is approximately 14% in the United States and 17% in Canada. The farm share increased somewhat during the commodity price boom but has generally fallen steadily by approximately 20% since 1997. While the farm share of expenditures on food for home consumption is approximately 22% across both countries, it is 4% in the United States and 7% in Canada for meals consumed away from home. The empirical framework can be extended to other countries given the extensive use of System of National Account data making international and temporal comparisons possible across farm and food marketing systems.     

Do People Value The Welfare Of Farm Animals?

Public concern over farm animal welfare has led to the banning of a number of intensive farming methods such as sow stalls, battery cages (by 2012) and veal crates, and the development of high welfare status products sold at a price premium. This indicates that consumers value farm animal welfare. In addition satisfaction can also be derived, by consumers and non‐consumers of animal products, from the knowledge that all animals are experiencing welfare‐enhancing husbandry practices. Consequently farm animal welfare can be considered a complex good, sought partly for private consumption and as a public good. However, improving the welfare of all farm animals through legislation incurs costs ‐ are these increased costs of food production justified? We use contingent valuation to determine the economic value of improving the welfare of farm animals and find that people are willing to pay extra on their weekly food bill to ensure that laying hens, broiler chickens dairy cows and pigs have improved welfare conditions. The benefits of improving animal welfare are shown to exceed the costs of implementing these schemes. We conclude that improving the standards of legislation for farm animal welfare so that all farm animals experience higher standards of welfare can be economically justified.     

On Why Agriculture Declines with Economic Growth

When economic growth is characterised by a slow rise in the demand for food and rapid growth in farm relative to non-farm productivity, it is understandable that agriculture in a closed economy declines in relative terms as that economy develops. But why should agriculture decline in virtually all open growing economies as well, including those able to retain a comparative advantage in agricultural products? A key part of the answer is that the demand for non-tradable goods tends to be income elastic, so resources are diverted to their production even in open economies.     

Making explicit agricultural ecosystem service trade-offs: a case study of an English lowland arable farm

European farmland hosts a species assemblage of animals and plants which have undergone declines through the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, at least partly as a result of increased productivity. Further increases in human populations, changes in availability and cost of raw materials, policy constraints, price volatility and climatic changes will further drive greater efficiency and high yields in agriculture, with the risk of further adverse environmental impacts. We assess the effects of different management priorities (production-driven cropping vs. wildlife-friendly farming) at an arable farm in eastern England on food production, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and biodiversity. We modelled one actual and three alternative cropping scenarios using actual yields from the farm over 13 years, to calculate total yields and those foregone for agri-environmental measures. We measured crop yields, relative abundance of 19 farmland bird species, and CO₂ and N₂O emissions related to crop production. Removing up to 10.5% of land from production coupled with a more diverse rotation (including legumes) resulted in a large increase in breeding birds (177%) and reduction of 9.4% in GHG emissions at the cost of 9.6% of food energy. Food protein lost was only 2.9%. A smaller increase in bird numbers of 50% could be achieved at a much smaller cost to yield (～1.7% energy or protein) but with correspondingly smaller emissions reductions (1.2%). Results are discussed within the context of continued biodiversity loss to agriculture, increasing food demand and changing diets.     

Who Eats Seaweed? An Australian Perspective

Abstract

Current seaweed consumption and attitudes and preferences toward seaweed food products in a Western society are investigated to inform the seaweed industry regarding product development and marketing strategies. A national survey of 521 Australian consumers was conducted. About 75% of respondents had eaten seaweed; however, only 37% had consumed seaweed regularly over the past 12?months. Key drivers include health and nutritional benefits, taste, being natural, safe, and fresh. Critical barriers are lack of knowledge and familiarity, and the perception that seaweed is expensive. Females and younger, health-conscious consumers with higher household incomes and levels of education, who are more adventurous with food (neophilic), and who tend to snack and assign symbolic value to food are more likely to consume seaweed. Recommendations for the emerging seaweed industry in terms of target markets and relevant marketing strategies are presented and areas of further research proposed.     

Branding Food Culture: UNESCO Creative Cities of Gastronomy

ABSTRACT

Although branding is a well-established practice in consumer goods marketing its application to intangibles is a relatively new activity. This article analyzes the co-branding between the United Nations and urban centers that are successful in becoming UNESCO Creative Cities of Gastronomy. Cities with this status have the potential to generate benefits from enhanced brand image, with associated economic and social rewards. However, it requires ongoing investment to create awareness among potential tourists and investors and in the development of enhanced pride and coordination among city residents and businesses. Numerous cities are likely to join the existing five UNESCO Creative Cities of Gastronomy over coming years as a result of efforts from UNESCO to raise its profile, alongside individual cities prioritizing food tourism in their economic development plans and increasing global importance of food security as evidenced by it being the theme for World Exposition being hosted by Italy in 2015.     

Export Crop Marketing in Tropical Africa

Abstract

Recent developments at the consumer and at the farm level have resulted in a renewed interest in short market channels for fresh food. This paper focuses on consumer valuation of purchasing fresh food from short channels in general and on differences between two distinct types of short channel initiatives, i.e., farmers' markets and food teams as examples of supply- and demand-side driven initiatives respectively. The research methodology builds on the Means-End-Chain theory. Data are collected through laddering interviews with 100 respondents. The general hierarchical value map largely supports classical theories of value structures. “Security” is the predominant value type with “Health” as the major value. Further, a distinct “Hedonism” and “Universalism” cluster are discovered, with the first being built on the attribute “Freshness,” the consequence “Taste” and the value “Pleasure,” and the latter including environmental, animal welfare and regional development concerns. Specific motivation structures dealing with farmers' markets versus food teams are reported. Recommendations pertain to organizational and marketing issues, more specifically product positioning, innovation and communication based on the revealed Means-End-Chains or motivational structures.     

The Evolution and Implications of the U.S. Food Security Act of 1985

The Food Security Act of 1985 sets the United States (U.S.) policy course for the five years, 1986–1990, in the areas of farm product prices and farmer incomes, agricultural production, food aid, and trade in agricultural products. It is clearly an evolution of past policy, deeply rooted in the institutional processes of participatory policymaking. The Act will have important implications for not only domestic producers, consumers, agribusinesses, and taxpayers, but alto product agricultural exporters and importers around the world. Just as it was substantially, affected by the current loss of export markets and the economic crisis in the U.S. agricultural sector, its implementation and impacts will be affected in the future by the unpredictable weather, macroeconomic conditions around the world, and international trading policies. This article examines the development of the policy embodied in the Act and analyzes its primary economic implications. Although most provisions of the U.S. agricultural price and income policy that had evolved over the past half century were continued, important changes were made. The resulting policy closely mirrored the preferences revealed from research concerning farmers and leaders of national agricultural and food interest groups. Primary changes from the previous 1981 Act were: lengthening the duration to five years; substantial lowering of the minimum price support levels; permitting a gradual decline in the minimum target prices; providing for a whole dairy herd buyout program; establishing export enhancement initiatives through credit, promotion, and export payment-in-kind (PIK); and initiating major efforts to increase farmland conservation and withdrawal of fragile lands from production. Likely implications of the new Act include: (1) lower product prices for agricultural producers around the world, and also farmer incomes if there is no income protection from national policies; (2) a similar but a less proportionate impact on consumers; (3) a substantial burden on the U.S. Treasury, and possibly those of the other nations as well, depending upon the type of policies followed; and (4) likely intensification in the immediate future of the economic conflicts and negotiations between major agricultural trading nations of the world. Research played a vital role in the development of the U.S. 1985 Act. Given the turbulent, uncertain, and important nature of the agricultural and food sector in the world, research is challenged to provide more and better knowledge for future policymaking.     

Short supply chain participation and market performance for vegetable farmers in China

The fresh food supply chain in China has begun to reduce the number of intermediaries that connect producers and consumers. Using farm‐level data, this paper investigates the impacts of short supply chain participation on vegetable farmers’ market performance, including profits, productivity, production cost, price and price risk. The results show that the participation in a short supply chain is a profit‐maximising strategy and risk management tool for farmers. The increase in profit is attributed to productivity advantages, farm size expansion, and risk reduction rather than because of price premiums or cost savings. A policy implication is that short supply chain promotion has many benefits, but the government should be more concerned about the sustainability of short supply chains.     

Improving China’s food and environmental security with conservation agriculture†

China has achieved impressive increases in agricultural output in recent decades. Yet, past approaches centred on a growing use of fertilizers, pesticides, fuel and water are not likely to achieve the required 30–50% additional increases in food production by mid-century. We show that efficiencies of production are falling and the costs of environmental harm are increasing. Agricultural innovations that improve natural capital are urgently needed. Conservation agriculture (CA) is now practised on >8?Mha in China and is offering promising prospects of both enhanced yields and environmental services. Our meta-analysis of 60 papers with 395 observations in China shows notable benefits from CA. Mean yield increase was 4.5% or 263?kg?ha^?1 for wheat, 8.3% or 424?kg?ha^?1 for maize, and 1.65% or 250?kg?ha^?1 for rice. In 34 datasets from 22 published papers (experimental duration: 2–17 years), 26 datasets (76.5%) show that CA increased yield and soil organic carbon (mean SOC increase of >3?g.kg^?1 in 0–10?cm soil depth) when compared with traditional tillage. Key priorities for the spread of more sustainable forms of agriculture in China are national policy and financial support, better coordination across agencies, and better extension for farmers.     

Farmland habitat diversity in Ireland

While appreciation of the fundamental role biodiversity plays in underpinning the long-term sustainability of agricultural systems is growing, international commitments to preserve and protect this natural resource have not yet been achieved. Loss and degradation of farmland habitats are an important contributor to the continued decline of biodiversity. Despite this, little information is available regarding the diversity and ecological condition of farmland habitats in Europe. Indeed, where habitat data are available, this is usually at a very broad landscape scale rather than farm scale. Coupled with this, strategies to increase agricultural output in response to growing global population, will likely place increasing pressure on farmland biodiversity. Knowledge and ongoing monitoring of farmland habitat type and extent is a prerequisite for the future protection of much of Europe’s biodiversity. Here we report the findings of a national scale survey of farmland habitat diversity in Ireland.Detailed surveys of farm habitats and management practices (system, stocking rate agri-environment scheme participation status and organic N and P inputs) were undertaken on 118 farms in three regions of the Republic of Ireland (RoI). Recorded farm habitats were subsequently digitised on orthophotography. The resulting ground truthed data from the total surveyed area of 3688 ha, were then used, together with satellite imagery, to classify the habitat composition of a further approximately 87,000 ha of the surrounding landscape.Results revealed that at individual farm scale, an average of 73% of the land surveyed comprised agriculturally productive (mainly improved grassland) habitats. Marginally productive habitats (mainly extensively managed grasslands) accounted for an average of 11% of farm area, while other semi-natural habitats (mainly hedgerows) accounted for an average of 13%, with the remaining ca. 3% under build ground. Results from the classification at the wider landscape scale showed a similarly substantial incidence of non-intensively managed habitats. However, at both farm and landscape scales, habitat diversity was found to vary markedly between different regions and farming systems.This study represents one of a very small number that currently exist, where farm scale habitat and management data have been collected. From the few that are available, semi-natural habitat cover has been found to account for an average farm area of 1–12%. Therefore, our data present a relatively positive picture in terms of the intensity, scale and impact of Irish farming on landscape heterogeneity. However, as in other parts of the world, agricultural expansion and intensification to meet increased global food supply will necessitate careful monitoring of the impact of these changes on the structure of farmed landscapes. This study provides a novel approach for the collection of such monitoring data at farm scale, and illustrates how such data can be reliably up-scaled to landscape level.     

STABILITY IN FARM INCOMES

The primary aim of this study has been to measure the extent of income variability in United Kingdom agriculture; to determine whether variability has been diminished; to compare the incidence of variability on various types of farm; to consider to what extent individual farm have consistent or divergent experience of income variation; and to determine whether net incomes generally move in the same direction as the prices of farm products. A secondary aim has been to determine whether income variation in agriculture is greater or less than in other sectors within the United Kingdom and within the United States. Income variation has been found to be roughly twice as large in the farm sector as in other sectors and in all sectors variation was less in the second half of the period studied.     

The Growing Heterogeneity in the Farm Sector and Its Implications*

The farm sector has moved from one that was very homogeneous to one with significant differences in size and/or orientation. The decline in the number of “average‐sized” farm and the growth in the number of large farms are due primarily to technological innovations that push operations producing commodities to grow as a means of capturing economies of size. The increase in the relative number of small farms is also due partially to technical advances that allow for the production of food goods with the desired quality attributes to be delivered to the appropriate market. This market is continually being differentiated due to demographic and income shifts. The growing heterogeneity in farm structure complicates the assessment and design of farm policy. The social policy objective of improving the livelihood of farmers and their families could be achieved through farm support and extension programs when the sector was homogeneous. The policy objective has shifted toward improving the competitiveness of the sector, but for which of its components? The trend toward greater heterogeneity is likely to continue and thus so will the internal and external support for any policies targeted toward the farm sector.     

Impact of off‐farm income on food expenditures in rural Bangladesh: an unconditional quantile regression approach

This study examines the effects of off‐farm income on food expenditures of rural Bangladeshi households. Our analysis yields unbiased estimates of the unconditional impact of off‐farm income on food expenditures and reveals the heterogeneous effects that occur across the distribution of total food consumption expenditures. The findings suggest that the impacts of off‐farm income are uniformly positive across the unconditional quantile regression and significantly increase food consumption expenditures for all quantiles, except for the 25th quantile. In addition, we found that schooling, experience, and location of the household increase the food expenditures of rural households. Most importantly, this article argues that female‐headed rural households in which the female works off the farm tend to have significantly lower food expenditures.     

Determinants of Consumer Behavioral Intention Toward Social Farm Food

The study authors investigate consumer reactivity to social and health concerns, social farm food’s perceived quality, and whether these attitudes can be expected to influence their behavioral intention with regard to these products. Data were collect on a convenience sample (N?=?361) via a questionnaire. Five hypotheses, concerning the relationships between social consciousness, health consciousness, social farm food perceived quality, and consumer behavioral intention, were tested via a structural equation model. The results indicate that both social consciousness and health consciousness have a positive impact on social farm food perceived quality. Consumer behavioral intention is directly influenced only by health consciousness but indirectly by both social and health consciousness, via the attribute of social farm food perceived quality. The findings depict a particular reactivity of potential consumers. The study provides a general outline of questions or studies that might be useful in the future.     

Institutional innovation and policy support to facilitate small‐scale farming transformation in China

While the Asian food economy has been experiencing significant transitions, it is widely believed that little transformation has occurred in farm land operation. However, the recent rapid emergence of middle and large‐size farms in many regions of China is striking, as is the increase in size of operational units. The overall goal of this article is to understand small‐scale farm transformation in China based on a unique dataset surveyed in Northeast and North China. The results show that the institutional innovation through establishing land transfer service centers to promote land rental markets and reduce transaction costs, policy support to speed up land consolidation, and farm mechanization services are major driving forces in the recent evolution of China's farm operations. The article concludes with policy implications on small‐scale farming transformation in China and the rest of world and identifies research issues for further study.     

Vietnamese Consumers’ Willingness to Pay for Safe Pork in Hanoi

Abstract

Food safety is one of the main concerns and the biggest challenge for consumers due to its direct influence on human health. In order to deal with unsafe food situation, the demand for food hygiene has increased in recent years as well as the consequent increase in price accepted by consumers. This study aimed to estimate consumers’ willingness to pay (WTP) and to examine the determining factors influencing their WTP for safe pork using double-bounded dichotomous choice contingent valuation method (DBDC CVM). The data were collected from a survey with a sample size of 134 respondents in Hanoi, Vietnam using two sets of questionnaires on the consumption of rib and shoulder of pork. The results revealed that the percentages of the consumers willing to pay a premium for more hygiene shoulder and rib of pork were 81.75% and 73.01%, respectively. The mean WTP was 129,000 VND (US$6.07) for both safe shoulder and rib, 48.7% and 37.8% higher than the regular market price, respectively. The results showed that consumers’ awareness of the risk of unhealthy pork, household income and expenditure were the positive determinants to WTP; meanwhile, the amount of pork consumption per month negatively affected the willingness to pay more for shoulder and rib of pork.     

SIMULATED MARKETS,FARM STRUCTURE,AND AGRICULTURAL POLICIES*

In this investigation estimated relationships of resource markets for United States agriculture are used in a simulation model to study resource demand and farm income under three conditions: (a) those actually prevailing, including the historic mix of agricultural policies, (b) with technical change in agriculture only half the rate realized, and (c) with a free market. The results indicate that compared with “actual” conditions the environment of slow technical change would have modest effects in slowing the demand for farm machinery and the migration of labor from agriculture. It also would result in greater net farm income in the 1960's. A free market would be accompanied by increased investment in farm machinery and a greater exodus of family and hired labor from agriculture. It also would result in a smaller farm building investment and a considerable reduction of farm income. Since economic conditions are so similar in both countries, the implications of these findings are related to Canadian agriculture on the assumption the same model would show the same outcomes for Canada. Dans cette étude, des rapports estimés des marchés des ressources pour ?agriculture des Etats-Uns sont employés dans un modéle de simulation afin ?étudier la demande des ressources et le revenu agricol net sous trois conditions: (a) celle qui régne réellement, incluant le mélange historique de politiques agricoles; (b) celle qui ne montre le changement technique de ?agriculture qti à la moitié du train realise; et (c) celle qui profite ?un marché libre. Les résultats indiquent que ?enrironnement du changement technique modéré, quand il est compareé avec les conditions réelles, produirait des effets modestes en diminuant la demande pour des machines agricoles et en ralentissant ?exode de la main-?oeuvre de ?agriculture. En outre, cet environment aurait pour résultat un revenu agricole net plus fort dans les années de 1060 à 1970. Vne marché libre serait accompangne de placements augmentés dans les machines agricoles et ?un plus grand exode de la main ?oeuvre familiale et salariée de ?agriculture. Aussi, ceci aboutirait à un investissement moindre dans la construction rurale et à une réduction considérable du revenu agricole. Puisque les conditions économiques des deux pays sont si ressemblantes, les implications de ces conclusions sont rattachées à?agriculture cana-dienne en supposant que le même modéle montrerait les mêmes résultats pour le Canada.     

Reforms,globalization, and endogenous agricultural structures

In this article, I draw lessons from two quasi‐natural experiments (the transition process in former Communist countries and the rapid globalization of food chains) on the optimality of farms and agricultural structures more generally. I argue that (a) the farm structures that have emerged from the transition process are much more diverse than expected ex ante; (b) this diversity is to an important extent determined by economic mechanisms which are influenced by initial conditions and reform policies; (c) non‐traditional farm structures have played an important role during transition because they were optimal to address the specific institutional and structural constraints imposed by the transition process; (d) there is more diversity than often argued in the farms that are integrated in global food chains; (e) endogenous institutional (contracting) innovations in food chains may lock existing farm structures in a long‐run institutional framework; and (f) indicators based on farm structures are not a good measure of welfare effects of the globalization of food chains.