农业结构调整下国内农业支持政策的选择

农业结构调整受农业生产要素的各种约束,难度大成本高。为促进农业结构调整,提高我国农产品竞争力,应积极改革国内农业支持政策中的“绿箱”“黄箱”政策,重点为提供结构调整援助,提高粮食安全储备的效率、增加对农民培训的投入、推进农业信息体系建设等。     

Devaluation,Inflation, and the Balance of Payments: A Short-Run Monetary Approach*

In this paper a model is presented to analyze, in a monetary setting, the effects of a once-and-for-all adjustment in the exchange rate in a small economy committed to a fixed exchange-rate system. The effects of such an adjustment are shown to be transitory. After a devaluation the domestic rate of inflation accelerates in relation to the rate of inflation in the rest of the world. The increase in prices reduces the real value of the nominal stock of money and, in order to restore real liquidity to its previous level, foreign-exchange reserves start to flow into the country. However, as monetary equlibrium is reached, the flow of reserves tends to stop and the domestic rate of inflation converges to the world rate.     

我国商业银行贷款损失税收政策研究

商业银行贷款损失税收政策是银行所得税的核心问题。对于银行提取的呆账准备金能在税前多大比例扣除,商业银行、监管部门以及财税部门存在较大争议。银行贷款损失税收政策的制定应该遵循两个基本原则:首先,符合税收中性原则;其次,避免对银行提取足额准备金的行为产生制约。而我国现行的贷款损失税收政策并不符合这两个原则,因此应进行政策调整,由一般准备法改为更合理的特殊准备法。但是,在政策转变过程中需要注意两个问题:第一,特殊准备金也并不完全反映贷款的真实损失,允许其全部税前扣除也可能会导致征税不足。第二,在不良贷款比例很高的情况下,由一般准备法改为特殊准备法,税前扣除额可能会大幅度增加,因此需要考虑到政策变动对我国税收收入的影响。     

Exchange Rate Policy and the Resources Boom*

This paper considers some policy choices posed by the prospective Australian resources boom, distinguishing between the investment boom and the export boom and between the adjustment and the non-adjustment options. With adjustment both booms are likely to lead to real appreciation, raising the ‘Dutch disease’ issues. Non-adjustment means accumulating foreign exchange reserves by preventing both nominal appreciation and inflation. It is discussed whether protection by tariffs or quotas should be lowered or raised because of the export boom. An Appendix analyzes the monetary policy implications of both the floating rate (adjustment) and the fixed rate (non-adjustment) cases.     

探析自然保护区旅游开发的景观生态调控

旅游开发是自然保护区可持续发展的必由之路，但目前自然保护区在旅游开发过程中，出现了众多的景观生态问题。文章运用景观生态学的原理和方法，对自然保护区旅游开发过程中的景观生态问题提出了调控途径，包括旅游景观生态规划，旅游景观生态设计，旅游景观生态管理等三方面的内容。     

Eliminating Required Reserves: Does it Matter?

The Government of Canada has recently announced its intention to eliminate reserve requirements at the chartered banks. This paper investigates whether required reserves are relevant for economic stabilization, using a prototype macro model characterized by both contemporaneous and legged bank reserve accounting. It is shown that required reserves have no affect on economic stability as long as the central bank can set the interest elasticity of the supply of bank reserves. This adjustment depends on the reserve accounting system in effect at the time of the regime shift. [431]     

PRICE DYNAMICS,FOREIGN EXCHANGE AND ANTICIPATED SHOCKS IN A TOURISM ECONOMY

Using a dynamic model of an open monetary economy, this paper examines the effects of tourism‐related anticipated shocks on goods prices and foreign exchange reserves. Foreign tourists consume mainly non‐traded goods in holiday destinations, converting them into exportable goods. This gives rise to a tourism terms‐of‐trade effect that affects the accumulation of foreign exchange. Announcements of anticipated events bring tourist visits forward, resulting in an initial under‐adjustment or an over‐adjustment in the prices of the non‐traded goods when the tourism terms‐of‐trade effect is positive or negative. This leads to an increase or a decrease in foreign reserves in the long run.     

基于区域经济实力的储备货币研究

随着我国外汇储备规模的迅速扩大及年新增储备的急剧增加,我国外汇储备币种结构的管理已成为国内外的热门课题。本文通过分析目前我国外汇储备币种结构现状,指出当前过多的美元储备造成了巨大价值损失和战略风险。在收集大量经济数据的基础上,以全新视角构建了基于区域经济实力的储备结构模型,通过对该模型的价值评估,得出该模型有较大的现实意义,最后提出了基于当前我国外汇规模及年增量水平下的国家外储结构调整方案。     

Foreign exchange reserves and import demand in a developing economy: the case of Pakistan

Conventional specifications of import demand in LDCs have commonly been plagued by implausible and unstable parameter estimates. This paper shows the importance of imposing long‐run income homogeneity and of including foreign exchange reserves when estimating import demand function for an LDC. Using several cointegration techniques, it is shown that there is one linear relationship among real imports, real income, relative import prices and real foreign exchange reserves. In addition, by employing stability tests for cointegrated systems by Hansen (1992a), the paper shows that only when foreign exchange reserves and long‐run unit‐income homogeneity are accounted for does a constant parameter, long‐run equilibrium relation emerge for Pakistan. Also, the ensuing short‐run dynamic model is constant and data‐coherent. Finally, the study provides information on the speed of adjustment to equilibrium and the median and mean time lags of adjustments of real imports to changes in their determinants. The results indicate a quick response of real imports to changes in their determinants.     

The 2014–15 Financial Crisis in Russia and the Foundations of Weak Monetary Power Autonomy in the International Political Economy

ABSTRACT

This article contributes to international political economy debates about the monetary power autonomy (MPA) of emerging market and developing countries (EMDs). The 2014–15 Russian financial crisis is used as a case study to explore why an accumulation of large international reserves does not provide protection against currency crises and macroeconomic adjustments in EMDs. The analysis centres on the interplay between two dimensions of MPA: the Power to Delay and the Power to Deflect adjustment costs. Two structural factors condition Russia’s low MPA. First, the country’s subordinated integration in global financial markets increases its financial vulnerability. The composition of external assets and liabilities, combined with cross-border capital flows, restrict the use of international reserves to delay currency crises. Second, the choice of a particular macroeconomic policy regime embraced the financialisation of the – mainly state-owned – Russian banking sector, thus making it difficult to transform liquidity inflows into credits for enterprises. Russia’s main comparative advantage, hydrocarbon export revenues, is not exploited. The type of economy created due to the post-Communist transition means that provided ‘excessive’ liquidity remains in the financial system and is channelled into currency arbitrage. This factor increases exchange rate vulnerability and undermines Russia’s MPA.     

Dynamic Reserve Adjustment Under Varying Balance of Payments Positions

Most studies on dynamic reserve demand assume that countries respond symmetrically to positive and negative deviations of actual From desired reserves. The present study demonstrates that for a sample of developed countries (DCs), balance of payments deficits induce a faster response (higher speed of adjustment) than do surpluses. The opposite is true for the sample of developing countries (LDCs) tested. However, the size of the gap rather than whether excess demand is positive or negative seems to be the determining factor of adjustment speeds in the case of the LDC sample. [F 31]     

宏观经济波动与人民币汇率政策的影响因素分析

本文通过对当前新一轮宏观经济波动特征的分析,发现随着中国经济对外开放度的日益提高,汇率政策对宏观经济的运行已具有越来越重要的影响.目前中国国际收支顺差过大、外汇储备增长过快已成为加剧宏观经济过热的重要因素之一.通过调整名义汇率来解决顺差过大的思路受制于价格总水平调整幅度的局限,因为在影响我国商品和劳务的价格因素中,劳动力价格水平与发达国家相比悬殊过大既是影响商品价格水平的一个主导性因素又是一个长期性因素,在短期内不可能大幅度的缩小这一差距.由此,决定了目前不可能采取对人民币汇率水平大幅升值的办法来解决国际收支失衡和外汇储备过快增长的问题.解决人民币汇率的市场化形成机制和汇率水平向真实汇率回归问题是一项相对长期的政策选择,因而,短期的汇率政策只能以外汇储备的结构调整为主导.     

人民币自然均衡实际汇率:1978—2004

均衡汇率是判断汇率水平是否失调及汇率政策是否需要调整的主要客观依据。长期自然均衡实际汇率是基本经济因素决定的、保证经济内外均衡和充分就业的实际汇率水平。本文根据自然均衡汇率理论和中国宏观经济特点,提出估计人民币自然均衡实际汇率的结构方程,采用1978—2004年的年度数据,利用全息极大似然法进行系统估计,得出人民币中、长期自然均衡实际汇率,测算出人民币实际汇率失调程度。实证分析结果表明,近几年人民币存在一定程度低估,但汇率失调程度趋向收敛。目前人民币升值压力主要来自金融经济层面。应整合中央银行和外汇管理部门职能,协同利用宏观经济政策,进一步完善人民币汇率市场形成机制。     

现行国际货币体系的不公正性与发展中国家的策略

现行国际货币体系的基本特征是储备货币多元化和以浮动汇率制为主流的汇率制度选择自由化，发展中国家似乎摆脱了原有的布雷顿森林体系和纪律和约束。但实际上，在现行国际货币体系下，发展中国家在储备货币依赖、江率制度选择、国际收支调节和抑制国际投资本冲击等方面均受到不利的影响（甚至是伤害）。本文首先论述了现行国际货币体系对发展中国家不公正性的表现，然后深入分析了其根源，最后提出了发展中国家应采取的若干策略。     

The democratic (dis)advantage: The conditional impact of democracy on credit risk and sovereign default

Many have argued that democracies are able to make credible commitments to repay their debts and consequently enjoy higher sovereign credit ratings. In contrast to this expectation, I argue that the advantage of democracies in credit ratings is conditional on the countries' level of financial vulnerability and adjustment needs. Because democracies have more diffuse decision-making and are more accountable to the public, they encounter greater difficulty than autocracies in passing unpopular economic adjustment measures. Thus, I argue that democracies with high debt levels and low foreign reserve assets experience worse credit outcomes, whereas democracies with low vulnerability experience more positive outcomes. In a sample of up to 96 developing countries, I show that democracies have worse credit ratings and CDS Spreads and are more likely to default than their autocratic counterparts when foreign reserves are low relative to external debt. Notably, I also show that large debt burdens increase credit risk mainly in more democratic countries. I further test the causal pathway of the democratic advantage by constructing democracy scores of “market-friendly” and “adjustment-difficulty” democracy, finding that democracy worsens debt outcomes due to adjustment difficulty. These findings help to revise and clarify the causal logic surrounding the democratic advantage hypothesis.     

International Reserves and the Composition of Foreign Equity Investment

This paper studies the effect of central banks' international reserve hoardings on the composition of foreign equity investment. Specifically, it examines whether reserves affect the share of foreign portfolio equity investment (PEI) in total foreign equity investment, which includes both PEI and foreign direct investment (FDI). Foreign investors' decisions regarding the location and the type of equity capital investment might be influenced by a country's level of international reserves. In a simple theoretical model, it is shown that higher reserves, thanks to their ability to lower exchange rate risk, reduce the risk premium of PEI. Hence, higher reserves are expected to increase the inflow of PEI relative to FDI. This hypothesis is tested for a sample of 76 developing countries during the period 1980–2010 using different estimation methods, model specifications and data samples. The results suggest that higher levels of reserves are associated with a larger share of PEI relative to FDI. This result points to a collateral benefit of reserves that has been neglected so far. Reserves may contribute to develop domestic financial markets and facilitate domestic firms' access to foreign portfolio equity financing. In addition, this paper finds a strong negative effect of the global financial crisis beginning in 2008 on the share of PEI, which confirms the hypothesis that PEI is more crisis‐dependent than FDI.     

大宗商品价格变化与汇率波动的动态关系——兼论中国外汇储备结构调整

2008年全球金融危机以来,大宗商品价格变化与一些大宗商品输出国货币汇率的波动态势较为一致。这是偶然巧合还是必然联系?本文利用VEC向量误差修正模型等对相关数据进行了实证分析后表明,2008年以来,大宗商品价格上升对澳大利亚、加拿大等大宗商品输出国货币汇率有正面推动作用。基于此,本文建议:为降低外汇储备风险,中国需要适时增加大宗商品输出国货币和资产在外汇储备中的比重,同时相应减持美元和美元资产。     

SHOULD THERE BE INTRADAY MONEY MARKETS?

In this article, we consider the case for an intraday market for reserves. We discuss the separate roles of intraday and overnight reserves and argue that an intraday market could be organized in the same way as the overnight market. We present arguments in favor of and against a market for intraday reserves when the marginal cost of overnight reserves is positive. We also consider how reserves should be supplied when the cost of overnight reserves is zero. In that case, the distinction between overnight and intraday reserves becomes blurred, raising an important question: What is the role of the overnight market?(JEL E44, E58)     

Exchange Rate Dynamics with Foreign Reserves: Revisiting the Dornbusch Overshooting Model

The purpose of this study is to shed light on the management of foreign reserves that possibly have contradictory policy intentions and impacts, for instance, (1) to defend the domestic currency, (2) to depreciate the domestic currency. With this Möbius's strip‐like nature in mind, we extend the Dornbusch (1976) exchange rate overshooting model with the foreign reserves. Depending on financial vulnerability, the presence of foreign reserves could amplify or alleviate monetary policy shocks on the exchange rate.     

The effects of ‘now’ accounts on monetary aggregates,interest rates,and the economy: Some theoretical and early empirical results

The effects of nationwide payment of interest on checking accounts in the United States are examined theoretically and impirically. It is shown that the observed increase in the T-bill rates, loan rates and equity capital rate is consistent with predictions of economic theory. So is the increase in borrowed reserves, in total reserves and the money supply, M-1 B, even though non-borrowed reserves were kept fixed.