Methodology for increasing the adoption of R & D project selection models

Although some studies and experiences have shown that R & D project selection models can be potentially useful decision aids, their adoption and routine use is not widespread. This lack of usage may be a consequence of the lack of attention which model builders have traditionally given to the prevailing adoption attitudes of R & D managers. A design methodology centering around the measurement of adoption attitudes has been developed and used by the authors. The methodology consists of procedures for analyzing the organizational climate relative to project selection model usage, developing an acceptable model form relative to the organizational climate, and inducing the adoption of this model form within the climate. Three case applications of the methodology are described in which negative-to-positive shifts in adoption attitudes occurred and project selection models were adopted for long-term use. These results indicate that the use of this general methodology may lead to increased formal adoption and widespread usage of project selection model forms in R & D.     

A simple model of R & D project dynamics

A simple dynamic model is developed that describes some of the important aspects of research and development projects. Its purpose is illustration of the applicability of dynamic modelling to understanding the key factors affecting R & D performance. The model recognizes the differences among real, perceived, and reported progress on the job. It also includes the effect of schedule pressures on productivity. Simulation results are presented that, among other things, illustrate the trade-off between meeting schedule and maintaining organizational stability, the effects of rapid problem detection and response, and the difficulties due to the intangible nature of R & D progress.     

The boundary relevance of the project manager's job: findings and implications for R & D management

Much of the stress and conflict in the project manager's job can be attributed to the boundary nature of that position. This study explores the relevance of recent developments in organizational role theory for clarification and understanding of the project manager's job. Findings are reported from a study which show that traditional management thought is inadequate for understanding the factors which regulate the project manager's behavior. One must recognize the boundary relevance of the project manager's role in order to avoid organizational or administrative arrangements that would be undesirable for project management. Several implications, which logically follow from the theory and findings on boundary role behavior, are noted for their relevance for R & D management.     

Assessment of profiles in R & D: a tool for analysis and development of R & D potential

A study sponsored by the State Committee for Science and Technical Progress of Bulgaria aimed at providing a theoretically sound and easy to apply method for the needs of R & D management on government, organization and team levels, to be used in assessing and managing both present and future R & D potential.
The method draws inferences about R & D potential from the accumulated experience and performance of the researchers, analysed along research topics. A specific 'man-topic unit of analysis helps identify individual researchers, teams and projects' profiles and also helps translate the specific characteristics of R & D work and the requirements for R & D internal effectiveness into the language of R & D management.     

R & D and the company's requirements

Numerous models have been put forward in the literature for the selection and evaluation of projects, many of which are based on optimizing the return on investment by the company in R & D projects. This is a noble aim but in practice the financial data available are often of dubious accuracy and so many other factors are involved in actually adopting a portfolio of selected projects that project selection often becomes a theoretical exercise. It is suggested that the selection of projects is in essence the adoption of a strategy which is within the policy and long-term aims of the company and also within the policy and scientific development of the R & D part of the company. Such a strategy is usually sub-optimum for both the company and the R & D division, as it is a compromise between a desire for high pay-back investments by the company and the maintenance of a scientifically balanced R & D involving some long-term, unknown return, investments. A method is currently being experimented with by Unilever Research which illustrates where conflicts arise between the policy of the main company and that of research, and assists management in arriving at a strategy which most closely fulfils the needs of both policies. Both the concept of the method and its practical use are described in this paper.     

Ten years of R & D Management-some major themes: the role of communication in R & D

Fifteen papers on the role of interpersonal communication in R & D appearing in the first ten volumes of R & D Management are reviewed. The conclusions reached by the various contributors on three major themes are compared. The themes are: the relation of communication to performance, the effect of physical separation on communication rate, and the role of communication stars in information transfer. A clear division of opinion emerges on the extent to which managers can impose or create effective communication patterns as distinct from merely being able to stimulate those that already exist. Differences in experimental approach and the existence of methodological gaps prevent any judgment being made between the two viewpoints based only on the evidence in the papers under review.     

The economics of industrial R & D

The relationship between research and commercial operation is examined in terms of production using a simple Cobb-Douglas production function, where output is expressed in terms of inputs of labour, capital and‘technical progress’. The model was tested in a single company environment by multiple regression analysis of output as the dependent variable on various measures of research, labour and capital. The results of the regression analysis are in full agreement with the model as outlined and the assumption that output is dependent simultaneously on labour, capital and the cumulative research investment.     

Human aspects of R & D organization

Abstract. The organization structure of an R & D Division should seek to establish conditions in which creative ideas flourish. The nature of the R & D activity and needs of its staff must be clearly understood. The essential core of the organization should comprise a number of commercial target groups around which lie a flexible array of disciplinary and service groups. It is essential that group managers are seen to be scientists or engineers of distinctive competence. There should not be more than three tiers of management.     

Organizational structures in the R & D sphere

Integration of R & D and production activities poses a major managerial problem, which arises because of fundamental differences in the nature of the two kinds of activity, requiring distinctly different management systems. A study of 100 teams of both types showed marked differences between the two in the organizational climate leading to maximum effectiveness. A taxonomy of organizational types, integrating the two activities in a spectrum of ways, is described. A study conducted among Polish electrical engineering enterprises showed that project-type organizations produced products with the greatest degree of originality (measured on the Kesselring scale), while matrix organizations introduced the greatest number of new products into the organizational system. A venture team concept, combining features of both organizational types, is proposed as a means for capitalizing on the good points of each.     

Equitable payment in the R & D function

This paper discusses the problems associated with constructing equitable salary structures for Senior R & D employees. The use of job evaluation and performance appraisal are both considered. It is suggested that the decision band method of job evaluation is particularly useful in this context and a case study of its application within the R & D division of a large manufacturing firm is presented. Job grading and salary structuring in terms of decision-making responsibility are demonstrated. It is argued that the decision band approach assists rational administration of R & D in a number of ways including analysis and, perhaps, restructuring of the function. Methods of rewarding individual performance and measuring career development within R & D are also discussed in terms of the decision band concept.     

R&D project selection for promoting the efficiency of energy use

Screening criteria for selecting energy R& D projects are discussed and applied to a dozen projects currently underway. The impact on energy balance and environmental quality cannot be seen as the only, nor even the dominating, attribute. In the cases studied, the R&D portfolio seeks to achieve a balance between these factors and the other criteria related to technology and the market. In the event the development work is carried out at an independent R&D centre, it will be necessary to have a committed industrial partner from an early stage onwards in order to ensure objectivity, market perception and provide the best chance of commercialisation.     

Controlling R & D projects by networks

Abstract . This paper discusses the use of network analysis in the management of a large scale engineering project carried out within the R & D department of an engineering company. It describes the use of precedence diagrams and concludes that these are simpler to use than the more commonly encountered PERT nomenclature. This method has now been extended to cover other projects in the R & D department and it is concluded that their successful introduction has been encouraged by the interest and support of top management.     

Communication networks in R & D Laboratories

Communication networks in R & D laboratories are shown to have structural characteristics, which when properly understood can be employed to more effectively maintain the laboratories' personnel abreast of technological developments. Informal relations and physical location are shown to be important determinants of this structure. Informal relations can be developed through formation of project teams and intergroup transfers and loans. The effect of physical location on communications is especially strong and should be given serious consideration when designing research facilities.     

R&D project selection: Productivity considerations

The paper consists of a theoretical discussion of the circumstances justifying the use of R&D to increase the productivity of a firm's manufacturing capability. There are three possibilities: Increase the productivity of existing capacity; re-equip with purchased existing best-practice technology; or use R&D to develop new technology.
The choice depends on which of the four following situations exist: 1) When the productivity of existing capacity is well below its potential and is also well below that of the industry's best-practice; in this case the right strategy is first to bring actual productivity up to potential, and then to consider the purchase of best-practice. 2) When productivity is well up to potential but is well below best practice; the advice is then to purchase best-practice. 3) When existing capacity is already best-practice but productivity is well below capacity; in this case productivity of existing plant should be increased. 4) When existing capacity is bestpractice and productivity is near the maximum; then and only then is R&D to develop new technology justified.
The paper concludes with a brief account of the process to be undergone between the establishment of a case for R&D using the above criteria and, if R&D is undertaken and completed, the retrospective review of its outcome.     

Industrial R & D and the British economic problem

Britain's poor industrial and economic performance over at least the past fifteen years is closely related to a national pattern of R & D activities that—by comparison with our main competitors—has been insufficient in volume, heavily concentrated in sectors of relatively minor industrial significance, and inadequately coupled to the problems and possibilities of production and the market. Reversing what in the 1970s was a strongly downward trend in British R & D and other innovative activities will require, amongst other things, more professionalism and skills in British engineering and management, and deliberate long-term strategies in industry and government to develop products, processes and markets that enable British industry to compete on the basis of quality and skills rather than low wages.