Ad ratings when a marketer runs two commercial messages in one television program episode

Advertisers sometimes run two messages in one television program episode. We examine the ad-ratings consequences in passively recorded data. Previous findings suggest that repetition can reduce ad affect and attention duration. Viewers might therefore tend to zap the second message for one brand. If second messages are targeted for zapping, marketers might run only one message per episode. We observe channel changing near the start and end of ad breaks, but no targeted second-message zapping emerged. Marketers might therefore continue to buy two ad units in particularly interesting shows. Interestingly, networks separated the two messages for one brand into early and late program segments. In some shows, this separation may influence the relative ratings of the two messages. For example, the first ad had higher ratings in some shows that followed a much more popular program on the same network. However, the second ad had higher ratings in some game and reality shows with strong audience build-up in late running time. But in each of these situations, the pooled rating for the two ads did not differ from the program’s average ad rating. In sum, our data suggest that marketers don’t provoke targeted ad zapping by running two messages in a program episode.     

How coviewing reduces the effectiveness of TV advertising

In the present study – a naturalistic laboratory experiment – coviewing of TV commercials reduced their effectiveness (delayed proven ad recall) from 63%, obtained by single viewers, to 43%, for both coviewers. During coviewing, the ‘mere presence of another’ apparently distracts each coviewer's attention from the screen. The reduction in TV ads' effectiveness due to coviewing is equivalent to the loss from channel-change zapping, which reduces ad recall to 45%. More deleterious but less prevalent modes of digital video recorder-enabled ad avoidance are skip-button zapping, which reduces recall to 35%, and moderately fast zipping ( × 8 fast forward), which reduces ad effectiveness almost entirely, leaving only 6% recall. This study concludes with some practical suggestions for improving the effectiveness of TV commercials seen by a coviewing audience.     

Effects of sex and attitudes toward women on the processing of television commercials

This study examined the effects of sex and attitudes toward women on different cognitive measures that were obtained after ‘liberal’ and ‘nonliberal’ male and female subjects viewed 12 television commercials: 6 commercials depicted ‘traditional’ female roles and 6 were ‘neutral.’ The dependent variables included (1) ratings of the commercials, (2) objections to the commercials, (3) perceived content or interpretation of the commercials, and (4) willingness to buy. The results suggested that liberals had more objections to the stereotypic commercials and that they rated and interpreted some of them more negatively when compared with nonliberals. Liberals were also less willing to buy some of the products after viewing traditional commercials. The findings were discussed with reference to Bem's (1981) gender schema theory.     

Television Advertising Avoidance: Advancing Research Methodology

New technologies have led to increased television advertising avoidance. In particular, mechanical avoidance in the form of zipping and zapping has gained momentum in recent years. Channel switching or “commercial zapping” studies employ diverse methodologies, including self reports, electronic monitoring, laboratory, and in-home observation which has led to a diversity of reported results. This article proposes advancing and standardizing the methodology to comprise a two-phase hidden observation and survey method. A number of research phases have led to the development of this method to collect both mechanical and behavioral avoidance data. The study includes a detailed outline of the hidden observation approach. The survey phase opens up the potential for the collection of viewer data that may further illuminate television advertising avoidance behavior.     

The Advertising Agency Selection Process

Commercial avoidance and audience erosion are two interrelated problems that marketing executives and media planners have been aware of for more than 30 years. With the rapid advancement of technology the problem of ‘zapping’ has become even more predominant. In this article the intensity of the problem is examined and several concrete recommendations are made.     

The impact of emotional appeal and the media context on the effectiveness of commercials for not-for-profit and for-profit brands

This study investigates the impact of emotions, both ad- and context-evoked, on the effectiveness of commercials for not-for-profit vs. for-profit brands. Two types of emotional impact are taken into account: firstly, the emotional appeal of the commercial itself and secondly, the emotion evoked by the context in which the commercial is embedded. Effectiveness is made operational by both rational (recall, recognition) and emotional measures (likeability, understanding of the ad and reduced intention to switch the ad). The main research uses a 2 × 2 between subjects design where the context (warm vs. sad film fragment) and the type of commercial (warm vs. sad) were manipulated for not-for-profit and for-profit brands. The appropriate stimuli were identified in a preliminary study. The results indicate that, overall, sadness as an execution approach works better for commercials. This is in particular the case for the rational impact measures of the for-profit brands. For the not-for-profit brands, the emotional measures have significantly higher scores. Moreover, a context-evoking sadness proves to be the most responsive for the for-profit brands.     

Ad avoidance in the digital context: A systematic literature review and research agenda

The recent growth in digital marketing investments and revenues has attracted the attention of both marketing practitioners and scholars. However, this growth has dramatically increased users' exposure to ad messages, encouraging consumers to avoid them. Therefore, ad avoidance has become a major problem for marketing practitioners. Although researchers have become much more interested in this subject over the past two decades, the body of knowledge on ad avoidance in the digital environment remains fragmented due to the lack of a comprehensive review. Therefore, a holistic overview study is needed that focuses on the big picture and can help researchers to understand the literature comprehensively. This study aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the topic using a systematic literature review approach on digital ad avoidance. To this end, we provide an in-depth content analysis of 56 relevant articles published in 31 peer-reviewed scientific journals up to December 31, 2021. Based on a theories, contexts, characteristics, and methods (TCCM) framework, the study results shed light on ‘what do we know, how do we know, and where should research about digital ad avoidance research be heading?’ Additionally, drawing on the content analysis, we have presented an integrative framework that considers antecedents, outcomes, mediators, and moderators, which can help develop the field systematically and guide future research. By doing so, we think this review meets the need to give an overview of the state-of-the-art scientific body of knowledge on digital ad avoidance and makes important and solid contributions to the literature, practical implications, and future research directions based on the findings.     

Music-brand congruency in highand low-cognition radio advertising

Many radio commercials use background music to accompany a message. This research examines how brand-congruent music (i.e. music that ‘fits’ the brand) will affect ‘Attitude towards the Ad’ (AAd) and ‘Attitude towards the Brand’ (ABrand), specifically when used with different types of ad copy that are more or less demanding of cognitive resources (high-cognition vs low-cognition advertising copy). In high-cognition ads, congruent music results in a more positive AAd and ABrand compared to incongruent music or no music. However, this effect is not found with low-cognition ads, where AAd (and ABrand) are similar for all three conditions of congruent music, incongruent music and no music.     

Investigating the persuasive impact and underlying processes of interactive magazine ads in a real-life setting

ABSTRACT

This study tests a theoretical framework to explain the persuasive impact of interactive magazine ads on consumers’ ad and brand attitudes. To obtain realistic (unforced) responses, a field experiment was conducted with a one-factor (interactive vs. non-interactive magazine ad) between-subjects design (N = 98). Results showed that, although they rarely used it, participants positively evaluated the presence of an interactive feature in a digital magazine ad. Furthermore, parallel-mediation analyses revealed that the interactive magazine ad was perceived as more interactive and more surprising than the non-interactive ad, which ultimately positively impacted consumers’ attitudes towards the magazine. A second real-life setting experiment (N = 121) confirmed and extended these findings by revealing that the mediation effects were even stronger when consumers had used the interactive feature (vs. only seen). In addition, the relationship between interactive magazine ads and consumers’ attitudinal responses was explained slightly better by ‘perceived surprise’ than by ‘perceived interactivity.’     

Chinese Viewers' Perception of Informative and Emotional Advertising

A systematic analysis of Chinese viewers' perception of television advertising was conducted using a sample of sixty commercials which were viewed by 160 respondents per commercial, who selected from a list of twenty adjectives adopted from the Aaker and Bruzzone (1981) study. Results indicated great differences in viewers' perceptions: informative commercials were most frequently considered to be ‘dull’, ‘uninteresting’ and ‘informative’, while emotional commercials were described as ‘appealing’, ‘interesting’ and ‘original’. Emotional advertising scored higher on ‘liking’ and perceived brand image than informative advertising. Factor analysis was carried out across commercials and individuals.     

Exploring how consumers cope with online behavioral advertising

This study explores how consumers cope with a computer technology-driven persuasion tactic called online behavioral advertising (OBA). By tracking consumers’ online behaviors, OBA delivers highly tailored advertising messages to individual consumers, giving rise to serious privacy concerns due to their covert nature. Integrating the persuasion knowledge model and the protection motivation theory, we employed a survey method (N = 442) to examine how consumers cope with OBA based on their persuasion knowledge, cognitive appraisal, and cognitive processing variables. The results reveal that persuasion knowledge was indirectly associated with coping behavior of ad avoidance throughout cognitive appraisal process (perceived risks; perceived benefits; self-efficacy). Privacy concerns partially mediated such associations with ad avoidance. Interestingly, cognitive processing variables (reactance; perceived personalization) were significantly associated with ad avoidance without being related to persuasion knowledge. The implications for theoretical, managerial, and social contributions are discussed.     

Extremely thin models in print ads: The dark sides

To appeal to consumers as social beings, advertisers include social settings and human images in commercial messages. Extant empirical research shows that thin models are perceived as more attractive and that the use of attractive models results in higher ad effectiveness. However, this study offers empirical evidence of ‘dark sides’ of extremely thin models, such that they harm advertising performance. The negative effects of extremely thin models stem from their influence on consumers' psychological well-being, as well as their ethical judgements of the advertisement. Respondents in this study also regard an extremely thin model as less attractive than a more average model. These results suggest that organizations should reconsider the portrayal of extremely thin models in their promotional messages and, more generally, consider consumer ethics when developing marketing communication messages.     

Evaluating the Message Strategy of U.S. Army Advertising: With Focus on Information Needs and Motivational Cues

A content analysis of 125 U.S. Army television commercials revealed that information about recruiting process and military lifestyle, the top two information needs of potential recruits, were not addressed as prominently in the commercials. The study also showed that Army commercials presented occupational motivations, which are more appropriate for potential reservists than active soldiers, more frequently than institutional motivations. The usage of information needs and motivational cues rested on a range of situational factors such as the number of wars in which the United States was engaged and the campaign's target audience. Implications for improving Army advertising were discussed.     

Tell What You Want but Do Not Irritate Me: A Senior Perspective About Advertising

This study provides an understanding of the underlying processes and attitudes toward advertising while watching in TV and YouTube. We intend to contribute to better understand what could lead senior consumers to avoid advertising. The aims are to (i) analyze the relationship between drivers to ad avoidance among senior viewers and (ii) compare the perceptions about those drivers between TV advertising and YouTube advertising among senior viewers. A sample of 214 senior viewers provided data to test the hypotheses. Findings reveal that irritation seems to be the crucial factor that lead consumers to avoid whacking advertising. A negative attitude toward advertising and skepticism do not mediate the effect between advertising irritation and avoidance. The article also provides managerial implications and suggestions to further research.     

When New Commercials Do Not Meet Expectations

The present research investigates whether a brand's prior commercials create expectations against which consumers compare its new commercials. Extending the expectation–disconfirmation paradigm, this article proposes that the degree to which consumers’ expectations are disconfirmed affects their attitudes toward a new commercial, which then influence their brand attitudes. Studies 1, 2, and 3 tested these predictions by exploring consumers’ expectations with regard to creativity, humor, and specific ad features (e.g., spokescharacters) in new commercials. The findings support the predictions; both value-laden and value-neutral expectations exert the proposed influences.     

Using Internet Behavior to Deliver Relevant Television Commercials

Consumer footprints left on the Internet help advertisers show consumers relevant Web ads, which increase awareness and click-throughs. This “proof of concept” experiment illustrates how Internet behavior can identify relevant television commercials that increase ad-effectiveness by raising attention and ad exposure. Product involvement and prior brand exposure, however, complicate effective Internet-targeting. Ad relevance matters more for low-involvement products, which have a short pre-purchase search process. For the same reason, using Web browsing behavior to make inferences about current ad relevance is more accurate for low-involvement products. Prior brand exposure reduces information-value, even for relevant commercials, and therefore dampens ad relevance's effect on attention and ad exposure.     

Eye-tracking evidence that happy faces impair verbal message comprehension: the case of health warnings in direct-to-consumer pharmaceutical television commercials

Risk warning or disclosure information in advertising is only effective in correcting consumers’ judgments if enough cognitive capacity is available to process that information. Hence, comprehension of verbal warnings in TV commercials may suffer if accompanied by positive visual elements. This research addresses this concern about cross-modality interference in the context of direct-to-consumer (DTC) pharmaceutical commercials in the United States by experimentally testing whether positive facial expressions reduce consumers’ understanding of the mandated health warning. A content analysis of a sample of DTC commercials reveals that positive facial expressions are more prevalent during the verbal warning act of the commercials than during the other acts. An eye-tracking experiment conducted with specially produced DTC commercials, which vary the valence of characters’ facial expressions during the health warning, provides evidence that happy faces reduce objective comprehension of the warning.     

Television food ads aimed at children in South-Eastern Europe: Cultural outlook and implications

South-East Europe (SEE) has the highest obesity rates and the most substantial consumption of television programs among young people compared to other parts of the continent. However, studies on this subject are notably absent from the existing body of literature. This research investigates differences in ad recall and preferences related to the healthiness of featured products and the alignment of advertising settings with specific cultural dimensions of SEE's ethos. The study utilizes two multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks: the social cognitive theory and the two-dimensional Minkov-Hofstede model of culture, and it employs a mixed-methods approach. Results from a survey conducted with children and a content analysis of TV ads from the region reveal that commercials promoting low-nutrition foods are more persuasive than those featuring healthy products. Consistent with the collectivist nature of SEE's culture, ads using group settings are predominantly recalled. Contrarily, in opposition to prior knowledge, the use of monumentalistic (vs. flexibility) attributes in commercials does not enhance the memory retrieval of ads. Children's ad preferences are significantly influenced by their self-concept. The implications of these findings for various stakeholders are discussed.     

Media portrayal of foods during Saturday morning television programming and in children's magazines

Eating habits are established in childhood and media portrayal of foods may affect food choices of children. To determine how foods are portrayed by the media, the contents of Saturday morning television programmes and commercials and three children's magazines were analysed. Foods portrayed during Saturday morning television programmes and commercials and in children's magazines were categorized as normal ‘food use’ (97.1% and 86.0%, respectively). Foods on television (91.3%) and in magazines (77.4%) were portrayed in a positive context. Foods were more often portrayed neutrally in magazines (206%) than on television (64%). The number of fruits and vegetables mentioned or shown on television did not statistically differ from the number of breads or cereals (P ≥ 0–05). In contrast, when combined as one group. fruits and vegetables that were included in magazines appeared more often than bread or cereals (P ≤ 0.05). Eighty per cent of all foods mentioned/shown on Saturday morning television were part of commercials, whereas only 12% of all foods in magazines were located in advertisements. Results indicate that opportunities exist in print and electronic media to convey positive nutritional messages about foods to children.     

Social commerce advertising avoidance and shopping cart abandonment: A fs/QCA analysis of German consumers

In recent years, due to the extensive use of social media advertisement and the development of social commerce tools, scholars and practitioners pay more attention to interaction with the digital channel, shopping intention, satisfaction, and retention. The objective of this study is to understand the shopping cart abandonment behavior as an outcome condition of ad avoidance on social media platforms. This research takes into consideration of cognitive, affective, and behavioral ad avoidance; alongside its antecedent conditions of perceived goal impediment, perceived add clutter, and prior negative experiences on social media. The research is conducted in Germany and Fuzzy sets/Qualitative Comparative Analysis (fs/QCA) is applied to understand the outcome condition of shopping cart abandonment. The findings imply that ad avoidance can create a learning mechanism for consumers about shopping cart abandonment of a brand or product if interrupted by a futile message or content. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.