The Mechanism of the Middle Income Trap and the Potential Factors Influencing China＇s Economic Growth

Data from WDI show that developing countries are easily caught in the ＂middle income trap.＂ To interpret the mechanism of the ＂middle income trap,＂ this paper focuses on： （1） Based on the empirical framework of economic growth, we perform an empirical research on the determinants of economic growth at different income levels and discover that fixed capital investment, FDI and human capital accumulation are the main factors influencing less developed economies while for the upper middle income level and high-income level countries, the engines of economic growth change to institutions and R＆D. （2） We discuss the possible reasons why developing countries can have rapid economic growth before reaching the middleineome level, but cannot transform growth mechanisms in the middle income level. （3） We classify the factors that have influenced China＇s economic growth since the reform and analyze the potential ones for China＇s future development.     

Will Inequality Lead China to the Middle Income Trap？

China has departed from the East Asian development model by letting inequality rise to a high level, which is now contributing to China＇s current problems of macroeconomic imbalance, declining efficiency of capital, and rising social tensions. If inequality persists, China may get caught in the ＂inequality-trap,＂ which may then lead to the middle income trap （MIT）. Fortunately, China still has the levers to pull to reduce inequality and avoid the MIT. Measures along both the ＂wage route＂ and the ＂redistributive route＂ can be adopted for this purpose. In addition, China may pursue the ＂cooperative route＂ to more equitable distribution.     

The Nature and Avoidance of the ＂Middle Income Trap＂

The ＂middle income trap＂ is a significant theoretical and practical issue closely related to the economic and social transition and sustainable development of a country. This paper explores the essence of the ＂middle income trap＂ and ways to avoid it. It reveals that the inner nature of the ＂middle income trap＂ lies in the institutional transition dilemma, which results essentially from a lack of reasonable and clear definitions of governance boundaries between government and market as well as government and society. This lack of boundaries causes coexistent and interrelated government inefficiency, market distortion/failure and social anomie, leading to a stagnant transition from a factor-driven to an efficiency-driven and further innovation-driven economy. Moreover, this paper proposes that the proper way to avoid the ＂trap＂ can be found in the reconstruction of the state governance mode, that is, to transition from a development-oriented and omnipotent government to a public service-oriented and limited government, from factor-driven to efficiency-driven and further innovation-driven development, and from a traditional society to a modem civil society through defining reasonable and clear boundaries between government and market as well as government and society. Thus, reconstruction can establish a state public governance mode featuring the interactive role of government, market and society, and achieve the modernization of state governance systems and capacity.     

Possibility of a Middle Income Trap in China： Assessment in Terms of the Literature on Innovation,Big Business and Inequality

This paper discusses the possibility of China falling into the so-called middle income trap in terms of three checkpoints： innovation capability, world-class big businesses, and inequality. Based on these criteria, our conclusions are as follows： First, China has increasingly become innovative and thus differs from other middle income countries. Second, China has many successful big businesses, a number disproportionate to its size. Thus, China differs from other middle income countries with few world-class big businesses, and the only qualification is that those big businesses are mostly non- manufacturing firms focused on such areas as finance, energy, and trading. Third, China faces great uncertainty in terms of inequality. Although several signs show that the Kuznets curve will come to represent China, as noted by the gradual reduction of surplus labor and rising wage rates starting in the coastal provinces, the Chinese are now facing new sources of inequality in China, such as wealth （including financial and real estate assets） and non-economic factors （including corruption）.     

Market Transition and Income Inequality in Urban China： Evidence from Shapley Value Decomposition

China＇s market-oriented reform is expected to strengthen the role of the market in allocating resources, which raises concerns over the impact of market transformation on income distribution and earnings inequality in the past decades. This paper decomposes the sources of inequality based on the newly developed Shapley value approach and examines the contributions of the market, along with other nonmarket factors, to total inequality. Using the China Health and Nutrition Survey data over the period 1989-2009, we find that the income gap between laborers with a higher level of education and those with a lower level has widened since the transformational reforms of the economy. Our results suggest that the largest contribution of changes in income inequality can be attributed to the increase in returns to education, while the relative contributions of the household registration （hukou） system, type of sector ownership, geographic location, and gender to inequality experienced a downward trend between 1989 and 2009. The authors argue that rising income inequality is the consequence of efficiency improvements and an imperfect economic system, and that the market is a decisive force in economic development as it releases competitive signals and creates incentive mechanisms for innovation. Creating a more efficient labor market and increasing investment in human capital, particularly equalizing educational opportunities and improving the quality of education in lagging rural and inland regions to disadvantaged groups, are significant for an equitable distribution of income and sustainable development in the long run.     

Positive Research on China＇s Economic Growth Quality——Analyze the Fluctuating Situation of the Factor Input and Aggregative Productivity

To analyze China‘s fluctuating situation of the factor input and aggregative productivity is not only the main method to seek the source of the economic growth but also the main way to weigh the level of economic growth quality. As to economic growth of a country, the improvement of the productivity is extremely important. The growth of the output can be realized through two kinds of ways: increasing the quantity of factor input of orimproving the effciency of the input and output. Therefore, the level of economic growth quafity does not mainly depend on the amount of invesTed factor, but the importance of improving the produtivity since Pesources are rare.The relative improvement of efficiency in use of the invested factor marks the economic growing quality. So, in order to understand the economic growth quafity of China to some extent, it must analyze Chinese factor input and aggregative productivity. This is the main topic that this text wilt be probed into.     

Positive Research on China’s Economic Growth Quality——Analyze the Fluctuating Situation of the Factor Input and Aggregative Productivity

I.The estimate of the factor input and its contribution to the economic growth1.Calculate the parameter of output elasticity of theChinesefactor inputThe output elasticity of the factor input is that the func-tion how factor input growth affects the outpu…     

FPI, FPI and China＇ s Economic Growth --Empirical Research based SVAR

利用SVAR模型,研究了外国直接投资和外国证券投资对中国经济增长的影响。结果显示FPI、FDI与中国经济增长呈现正相关关系,FDI的作用显著,FPI的作用不显著。同时,FDI和FPI之间存在一定的交替关系,FDI拉低了FPI,而FPI则在短期内对FDI有促进作用。     

Will India Be the Next China? Challenges,Prospects and Implications for Australia

India's recent growth performance has been impressive and it appears set to again become a major global economic power. But, sustaining this growth poses formidable challenges. Australia stands to gain much from India's growth. In this article, we review recent developments in the Indian economy, identify policy challenges and discuss short‐to‐medium term prospects, noting some of the main similarities and differences between China and India. Then, we look at opportunities for significant growth in Australian–Indian economic links and policy implications including the possible role of a free trade agreement.     

非线性增长与经济增长动力转换

采用时变马尔科夫区制转换模型,分析了不同投入要素在不同经济增长阶段对经济增长贡献的差异,以及影响经济在不同区制之间跃迁的关键因素。研究发现:在三类经济增速区间内,人力资本投入对经济增长的拉动效应最强,在推动经济从中速增长向高速增长转移的过程中发挥重要作用;帮助经济跨越"中等收入陷阱"的关键在于提高物质资本和人力资本投资的匹配度,使物质资本和人力资本的流动与产业集聚和城市化发展一致、与技术创新能力提升配合;渐进式转型有利于平滑增长路径,降低向高收入均衡收敛的临界值。     

基于经济指标构建的社会稳定风险评估研究

本文选用人均GDP、 GDP增速、基尼系数、物价指数和失业率等5项经济指标对社会稳定风险进行了评估,结果表明：国际横向比较,我国社会稳定程度目前处于中等偏上水平,主要得分在高速的GDP增长、较低的物价指数和失业率方面;自身纵向比较,我国社会稳定风险近年呈加大趋势,主要失分在贫富差距扩大和通货膨胀压力上升方面。笔者的分析结果显示,确保在贫富分化项上不再失分甚至有所加分,即确保贫富差距不再扩大并力争有所缩小,对于保持社会稳定极其重要。     

“中等收入陷阱”及其跨越——基于“包容陛增长”视角的思考

中国经济社会发展既处于大有作为的重要战略机遇期,又面临难得的历史机遇,同时也面对诸多可以预见和难以预见的风险挑战。当前中国面临的一个最大挑战,就是如何规避＂中等收入陷阱＂,通过研究和分析,经济结构战略性调整是规避＂陷阱＂的主攻方向,科技进步和创新是规避＂陷阱＂的重要支撑,保障和改善民生是规避＂陷阱＂的根本出发点和落脚点,建设资源节约型、环境友好型社会是规避＂陷阱＂的重要着力点,改革开放是规避＂陷阱＂的强大动力,只有如此,才能使中国实现＂包容性增长＂,规避＂中等收入陷阱＂。     

爱尔兰依靠创新成功跨越“中等收入陷阱”的经验和做法

爱尔兰由一个以农牧业为主的国家,通过采用积极的科技创新政策,大力发展信息通信和生命科学等高技术产业,实现了经济转型并成功跨越"中等收入陷阱"。爱尔兰以创新为发展源泉,实行开放型经济,利用技术预测为科技创新指明方向,大力扶植本土企业并为高科技创业提供资金保障,积极促进大学与国家科技园的密切合作,注重人才培养和引进。爱尔兰促进经济发展的成功经验和做法,可为我国经济转型提供参考和借鉴。     

我国区域收入差距与经济增长关系的实证研究——基于东、中、西部面板数据的协整分析

坚持区域经济协调发展,逐步缩小地区间发展差距,是提高经济落后地区居民收入水平、缩小同发达地区居民收入差距的一项长期战略。改革开放以来,从整体上说,我国各省区居民的收入和生活水平都得到了很大提高,但是由于各种原因,地区间经济发展的差距不仅存在而且有不断扩大的趋势。对我国东、中、西部地区居民收入差距与经济增长之间的关系进行研究分析,比较了三个地区居民收入差距的现状与变动趋势,分析了影响居民收入差距的主要因素以及这些因素对经济增长的影响,研究了收入差距与经济增长之间所存在的关系。     

阻碍中国经济加速增长之源：1960-2012年*

当一个国家跨入中等收入阶段后,如果不能实现经济的加速增长,将无法实现向高收入阶段的跨越,其结果会落入中等收入陷阱之中。本文通过构建用于计算中国经济增长减缓和增长加速的时间点约束条件,通过对中国1960-2012年数据进行筛选,找出中国经济增长的增长减缓点和增长加速点,并且借助于Probit模型,从结构性因素、社会与环境因素、官员腐败因素三个方面实证考察阻碍中国经济加速增长之源。最后提出本文的研究结论和政策建议。     

经济增长与收入差距:一个基于主体的经济模拟途径

本文提供了一个基于主体的转轨经济模型,用于分析经济转轨过程中经济增长和收入差距的动态关联性.模拟实验结果表明:随着经济的持续增长,收入差距经历一个先扩大后缩小的过程;实施适度的累进税政策会在缩小收入差距的同时,促进经济高速增长.     

跨越“中等收入陷阱”影响因素的实证分析

借助面板固定效应模型,对33个后发追赶经济体的宏观经济运行数据和结构性指标进行了实证比较。结果表明:成功跨越"中等收入陷阱"的经济体主要依靠服务业发展和全要素生产率提升拉动经济增长,而收入分配较公平、政府治理能力强也是跨越"中等收入陷阱"的重要保障条件;陷入"中等收入陷阱"的经济体长期过度依赖投资和要素投入拉动经济增长,且贫富悬殊、权力腐败问题突出导致政府治理能力削弱、经济发展缺乏动力、经济指标长期徘徊不前。指出后发经济体须针对这些因素进行相应改革,方能成功跨越"中等收入陷阱"。     

China’s Growth Prospects

China’s diminished growth prospects are in the news and seem to spell bad news for just about everybody. This article assesses the evidence, arguing that China’s economic growth will be much slower from now on, reducing international trade. Perhaps the biggest challenge for China will be future political tensions in reconciling economic dreams with economic realities.