The weighted average cost of capital is not quite right: Reply to M. Pierru

In this journal [Miller, R. A. (2009). The weighted average cost of capital is not quite right. The Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance, 49, 128–138], I argued that the standard WACC formula is inadequate in most circumstances to reward stockholders and bondholders where the necessary cash flows are calculated separately to exactly cover the respective costs of capital. Axel Pierru [2009. ‘The weighted average cost of capital is not quite right’: A comment. The Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance, 49, 1219–1223] observes correctly that my assumed repayment schedules (equal periodic payments to bondholders; similarly for stockholders) imply a temporal drift in the debt (or leverage) ratio; he would recalculate the WACC annually. He proposes an alternative calculation of the repayment schedules under the constraint of a constant debt ratio. Here I suggest three additional possible repayment schedules; in general repayment schedules determine the drift in the debt ratio. However, the expected repayment schedules are established at the time the project is accepted and financed, hence the relevant debt ratio is that which exists at that time. The WACC for a specific project need not (and should not) be recalculated for that project throughout its financial life when that project has already been accepted and financed.     

“The weighted average cost of capital is not quite right”: A rejoinder

Richard Miller's reply (2008) to my comment (2008) on his claim (2007) that the standard WACC formula fails to correctly remunerate shareholders and bondholders raises crucial questions on the nature of the project's debt that he considers in his calculations. To clarify this point, I here introduce several possible definitions of a loan associated with a project, and discuss their respective relevance for a WACC calculation. In addition, Mr. Miller's suggestion that the standard WACC formula is not quite right remains unsubstantiated.     

An Average-Based Accounting Approach to Capital Asset Investments: The Case of Project Finance

Literature and textbooks on capital budgeting endorse net present value (NPV) and generally treat accounting rates of return as not being reliable tools. This paper shows that accounting numbers can be reconciled with NPV and fruitfully employed in real-life applications. Focusing on project finance transactions, an average return on investment (AROI) is drawn from the pro forma financial statements, obtained as the ratio of aggregate income to aggregate book value. We show that such a metric correctly captures a project's economic profitability, as long as it is compared with a comprehensive weighted average cost of capital (WACC) that includes a correction factor that takes account of the capital foregone by the investors. In contrast to the internal rate of return, AROI is unique, and we provide an explicit functional relation that links it to the NPV. The approach holds for levered and unlevered projects, constant and non-constant leverage ratios, and constant and non-constant WACCs.     

融资结构与资本预算方法选择

传统的资本预算方法因没有考虑负债对企业的影响,权衡理论认为负债会给企业带来节税收益,降低股东与经理之间的代理成本,同时也会给企业带来财务困境成本和股东与债权人之间的代理成本。修正现值法、权益现金流量法和加权平均资本成本法,是西方主流反映负债融资对投资项目价值正负效应杠杆企业的资本预算方法。本文对此进行了探讨。     

WACC and free cash flows: A simple adjustment for capitalized interest costs

This paper shows how to value investment projects involving capitalization of interest costs by using the standard WACC method. Whenever capitalized interest costs do not immediately generate proportionate tax shields, one of the assumptions that justify the use of the after-tax weighted average cost-of-capital formula is violated. As an offset to this violation, the project's free cash flows have to be adjusted. We here derive and interpret a simple adjustment formula. A numerical illustration is provided.     

Comment on “The weighted average cost of capital is not quite right”

One of the most important equations in modern finance theory and practise is the WACC textbook formula accounting for the capital structure and resulting tax consequences on valuing a stream of cash flows. In the article “The weighted average cost of capital is not quite right” published in this paper by Richard A. Miller in February 2009, the correctness of this formula is questioned and so-called “nonlinear WACC” are derived. This paper shows that the statements in Miller’s article are questionable themselves and that the standard WACC approach nevertheless yields correct results.     

价值工程在ERP项目实施中的应用

ERP项目是一项耗资较大的复杂工程。为了使项目获得最佳的性价比,应该在ERP项目实施的前期阶段,即需求分析与软件选型阶段应用价值工程。同时,由于ERP软件与实施是一个不能分割的整体,为了避免软件价格陷阱和确保价值工程的成效,应把软件提供商及其实施服务的性能与成本纳入ERP项目价值工程的研究范围。     

The weighted average cost of capital is not quite right

A firm's cost of capital used in discounted cash flow analysis is commonly calculated as a weighted average of the after tax costs of the firm's various sources of financing (equity, debt, preferred stock). Its use implies that for investment projects earning precisely the WACC the cash (in)flow is exactly sufficient to reward all the suppliers of finance with their respective costs of capital. However, the necessary cash flow (normal profit) implied by the WACC is inadequate to provide the cash flows to the individual sources of financing when they are considered separately. This note discusses the problem (WACC is a linear approximation of a nonlinear relationship) and presents a modification of the WACC which is conceptually superior to the WACC as commonly calculated.     

Estimation and testing of crossing‐points in fixed design regression

Many phenomena in the life sciences can be analyzed by using a fixed design regression model with a regression function m that exhibits a crossing‐point in the following sense: the regression function runs below or above its mean level, respectively, according as the input variable lies to the left or to the right of that crossing‐point, or vice versa. We propose a non‐parametric estimator and show weak and strong consistency as long as the crossing‐point is unique. It is defined as maximizing point arg max of a certain marked empirical process. For testing the hypothesis H₀ that the regression function m actually is constant (no crossing‐point), a decision rule is designed for the specific alternative H₁ that m possesses a crossing‐point. The pertaining test‐statistic is the ratio max/argmax of the maximum value and the maximizing point of the marked empirical process. Under the hypothesis the ratio converges in distribution to the corresponding ratio of a reflected Brownian bridge, for which we derive the distribution function. The test is consistent on the whole alternative and superior to the corresponding Kolmogorov–Smirnov test, which is based only on the maximal value max. Some practical examples of possible applications are given where a certain study about dental phobia is discussed in more detail.     

价值工程在住宅项目全生命周期费用管理中的应用

引入工程项目全生命周期费用管理的概念,介绍了价值工程的基本原理。从工程项目全生命周期费用的最小化出发,选择价值工程作为住宅经济性评价的基本原理,通过对住宅项目的功能分析和成本分析,来确定住宅全生命周期的价值评价模型。为消费者衡量住宅的效用和对生产者度量其开发成本提供参考依据。     

基于价值工程的项目团队人员配置的构件化管理

根据软件工程中软件开发模块构件化与项目管理中项目职能分解的相似性,把构件化方法引入到项目团队人员配置中,按照项目职能的构件并灌以价值最大化的思想来进行项目团队人员的选择方面的应用,并为企业建立项目人员配置构件化的管理体系,来实现满足人力配置需要,降低费用,长期改进发展的目的。     

Bankruptcy,interest tax shields and ‘optimal’ capital structure: A cash flow formulation

This paper presents a cash flow formulation of the capital structure problem in the presence of corporate taxes. In contrast to the classic result of Modigliani and Miller, it is shown that an optimal capital structure does not involve exclusive reliance on debt financing.     

Determinants of capital structure choice: A structural equation modeling approach

In their seminal research on the determinants of capital structure choice using structural equation modeling (SEM), Titman and Wessels [Titman, S., & Wessels, R. (1988). The determinants of capital structure choice. Journal of Finance, 43, 1–19] obtain weak results and hence call for further investigation. We apply a Multiple Indicators and Multiple Causes (MIMIC) model, with refined indicators, to a pooled sample for the period 1988–2003 and find more convincing results than those obtained by Titman and Wessels. With the capital structure measured simultaneously by the ratios of long-term debt, short-term debt, and convertible debt to the market value of equity, our results show that growth is the most important determinant of capital structure choice, followed in order by profitability, collateral value, volatility, non-debt tax shields, and uniqueness. Moreover, we find that long-term debt is the most important proxy of capital structure, followed by short-term debt, and then convertible debt.     

Fast Fashion: Calculative Technologies and the Governance of Everyday Dress

Abstract

The speed at which contemporary fashion changes is such that the life of a garment can now be measured in a matter of weeks rather than months. The organisational consequences of operating in this environment are that fashion retailers have been prompted to adopt a range of quick response (QR) initiatives. QR involves responding promptly to the information contained within emerging sales trends while simultaneously accelerating the movement of product from factory to shop shelf. Drawing on the case of a UK fashion chain, this paper explores accounting's role in enacting QR. In addition, by deploying the theoretical framework of governmentality [Miller, P., & Rose, N. (1990). Governing economic life. Economy and Society, 19(1), 1–31; Rose, N., & Miller, P. (1992). Political power beyond the state: Problematics of government. British Journal of Sociology, 43(2), 173–205], the paper highlights the role of calculative technologies in the creation and sustenance of fast fashion and hence the governance of everyday dress.     

Modern Likelihood‐Frequentist Inference

We offer an exposition of modern higher order likelihood inference and introduce software to implement this in a quite general setting. The aim is to make more accessible an important development in statistical theory and practice. The software, implemented in an R package, requires only that the user provide code to compute the likelihood function and to specify extra‐likelihood aspects of the model, such as stopping rule or censoring model, through a function generating a dataset under the model. The exposition charts a narrow course through the developments, intending thereby to make these more widely accessible. It includes the likelihood ratio approximation to the distribution of the maximum likelihood estimator, that is the p^? formula, and the transformation of this yielding a second‐order approximation to the distribution of the signed likelihood ratio test statistic, based on a modified signed likelihood ratio statistic r^?. This follows developments of Barndorff‐Nielsen and others. The software utilises the approximation to required Jacobians as developed by Skovgaard, which is included in the exposition. Several examples of using the software are provided.     

Residual‐based IV estimation of dynamic panel data models with fixed effects

In dynamic panel regression, when the variance ratio of individual effects to disturbance is large, the system‐GMM estimator will have large asymptotic variance and poor finite sample performance. To deal with this variance ratio problem, we propose a residual‐based instrumental variables (RIV) estimator, which uses the residual from regressing Δy_i,t?1 on as the instrument for the level equation. The RIV estimator proposed is consistent and asymptotically normal under general assumptions. More importantly, its asymptotic variance is almost unaffected by the variance ratio of individual effects to disturbance. Monte Carlo simulations show that the RIV estimator has better finite sample performance compared to alternative estimators. The RIV estimator generates less finite sample bias than difference‐GMM, system‐GMM, collapsing‐GMM and Level‐IV estimators in most cases. Under RIV estimation, the variance ratio problem is well controlled, and the empirical distribution of its t‐statistic is similar to the standard normal distribution for moderate sample sizes.     

Costly state verification and optimal investment

We model a lender-borrower relationship in a CSV framework. The project available with the firm is characterized by first-order stochastic dominance. The lender audits the borrower to prevent the latter from strategic default. In this setup, we find the optimal contract is the standard debt contract. However, a debt contract leads to overinvestment. This result is in sharp contrast to those obtained in the literature. The default probability of the project can be influenced by the nature of financial contract in place. The model also derives the relationship between the optimal debt equity ratio and the auditing costs. The work is based on the author’s Ph.D. dissertation submitted at the Indian Statistical Institute. The author wishes to thank Shubhashis Gangopadhyay and the seminar participants at the Indian Statistical Institute, Jawaharlal Nehru University, MDI, and NIILM for useful comments on the earlier draft. The paper has also benefitted immensely from the valuable insights povided by the three anonymous referees of the journal. The remaining errors are mine.     

A note resolving the debate on “The weighted average cost of capital is not quite right”

Miller (2009a) derives a weighted average cost of capital for the special case where the cash flows to equity and the cash flows to debt are annuities. The paper attracts debate. We show that the weighted average cost of capital is redundant in a world where interest paid is not tax deductible. The required rate of return on unlevered equity will consistently and reliably estimate the net present value of any project no matter the idiosyncratic beliefs of the analyst as to the year-by-year leverage of the project, or of the firm. We recommend that the weighted average cost of capital method is discarded.     

Determinants of financial distress and bankruptcy in highly levered transactions

Prior literature on highly levered transactions (levered buyouts or levered recapitalizations) has emphasized either changes in governance or the structuring of their financing in helping these firms avoid financial distress or bankruptcy. Observing a sample of HLTs over time, we observe that debt composition is a more critical influence than proposed changes in governance for the likelihood of an HLT avoiding financial distress or bankruptcy. Such evidence is consistent with the [Chemmanur, T. & Fulghieri, P. (1994). Reputation, renegotiation, and the choice between bank loans and publicly traded debt. Review of Financial Studies 7, 475–506] model and suggests that the critical factor is the ability to informally renegotiate debt terms with a few lenders.     

The Impact of Unrealized Fair Value Adjustments on Dividend Policy

We examine the impact of unrealized fair value adjustments on dividend policy. Dividend payouts should include only persistent income [Lintner, J. (1956). Distribution of incomes of corporations among dividends, retained earnings and taxes. American Economic Review, 46(2), 97–113]. In our institutional setting, however, regulators recommend the non-distribution of any income from fair value adjustments, which suggests that they interpret them as transitory. We empirically demonstrate that fair value adjustments on investment property are persistent, while those on financial securities are transitory. We further show that only fair value adjustments from investment properties are distributed. We argue that managers perceive the persistence of the two fair value components correctly, and by doing so, they distribute income consistent with the Lintner framework rather than on regulatory recommendations. Finally, by focusing on managerial optimism, debt contracting, and insider ownership, we demonstrate the conditions under which firms choose to deviate from regulator recommendations and to distribute fair value profits.