Currency Substitution and the Stability of the Demand for Money in East Asia

Abstract

This paper models and tests the stability of the demand for money in five East Asian countries—Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand—in the context of an open economy. The Johansen multivariate cointegration vector error correction analysis against quarterly data covering the period 1985:1–2001:4 was used. It was found that a stationary long run cointegrating relationship exists between broad money, real income, domestic interest rates, foreign interest rates corrected for exchange rate depreciation, and the expected rate of depreciation of the exchange rate. The results show that US Treasury bills rates and the foreign exchange rate vis-à-vis the US dollar play a significant role in the East Asian countries money demand relationship. This suggests that currency substitution vis-à-vis the US dollar may be an important consideration in the design and implementation of monetary policy in the East Asian countries. Furthermore, the results show that the Asian currency crises impacted the money demand functions negatively in these countries. CUSUM and CUSUMSQ stability tests show no evidence of parameter instability of the money demand functions in three of the five countries throughout the period under investigation.     

美联储量化宽松货币政策实施效果评估与现实借鉴

2008～2011年,美联储推出的两轮量化宽松货币政策(QE)实施效果与预期有较大落差。基于后凯恩斯主义的内生货币理论,由于货币供给来源于经济体的内生需求,因而中央银行无法外生控制货币供应量,也无法简单地通过量化宽松政策刺激银行体系扩大信贷投放,以达到对内提升需求、扩大就业的政策目标,而对外的货币贬值也不必然能有效改善贸易逆差。中国调控经济、应对危机应该弱化汇率制度对国内政策的限制,完善信贷的内生创造机制,有效发挥政府与市场的互动机制确保就业。     

An equilibrium foundation of the Soros chart

The most prominent characteristic of the Japanese yen/U.S. dollar nominal exchange rate in the post-Plaza Accord era is near random-walk behavior sharing a common stochastic trend with the two-country monetary base differential augmented with excess reserves. In this paper, we develop a simple two-country incomplete-market model equipped with domestic reserve markets to structurally investigate this anecdotal evidence known as the Soros chart. In this model, we theoretically verify that a market discount factor close to one generates near random-walk behavior of an equilibrium nominal exchange rate in accordance with a permanent component of the augmented monetary base differential as an economic fundamental. Results of a Bayesian posterior simulation with post-Plaza Accord data of Japan and the United States plausibly support our model as a data generating process of the Japanese yen/U.S. dollar exchange rate. The model identifies the two-country differential in money demand shocks as the main generator of the sharp depreciation of the Japanese yen against the U.S. dollar under the Abenomics. We discuss data evidence that the identified money demand shocks are tightly correlated with longer-term interest rate differentials between the two countries.     

资本开放、外汇储备累积与货币政策独立性——中国数据的实证研究

在开放和发展条件下,基于凯恩斯动态货币需求调节方程和Cavoli模型,本文构建了一个包含外汇储备增加的国内市场利率决定模型。对中国2001~2008年月度数据的OLS和TSLS回归结果表明,国际市场利率和外汇储备增加对国内利率影响并不显著,而物价水平、产出和滞后一期的货币供给等变量系数符号不仅与理论预期一致,且检验显著。论文进一步采用了递归的SVAR模型来分析国际利率和外汇储备增加对国内利率的动态冲击效应,脉冲响应函数表明这种动态冲击效应同样十分微弱,说明了中央银行的货币冲销有效性和国内货币政策的独立性。     

Impacts of macroeconomic policies on the Mexican output

This paper examines the potential effects of macroeconomic policies, stock market performance, exchange rate fluctuations, and other related variables on real GDP in Mexico. Extending the works by Arango and Nadiri (1981) and Bahmani‐Oskooee and Ng (2002), and applying comparative‐static analysis, possible effects of a change in the exchange rate or government debt on the equilibrium output are examined. All the variables have unit roots and are stationary in first difference. There is a long‐run stable relationship between real GDP and the right‐hand‐side variables. The GARCH(p,q) (Engle 2001) model is applied to estimate regression parameters. Real GDP is positively associated with real M2, government deficit spending, stock prices, U.S. output, and world oil prices, and negatively affected by the government debt ratio, peso depreciation, and the expected inflation rate. Therefore, fiscal policy to incur more debt needs to be pursued with caution, and both net exports and money demand need to be considered in studying the impact of exchange rate fluctuations on output.     

THE YEN‐DOLLAR EXCHANGE RATE AND MALAYSIAN MACROECONOMIC DYNAMICS

This paper empirically assesses the effect of the yen‐dollar exchange rate on selected macroeconomic variables, namely, real output, price level, and money supply, for Malaysia. The results, which are based on a vector autoregressive framework, suggest that variations in the yen‐dollar rate can have significant influences on Malaysia's macroeconomic variables. More specifically, the yen‐dollar depreciation leads to contraction in real GDP and money supply. These results are fairly robust to alternative model specifications. We believe that, apart from providing important insights into the interactions between the yen‐dollar rate and domestic macroeconomic variables, our results contribute to the debate on choice of exchange rate regimes for Malaysia.     

Black Market Exchange Rate Behaviour in African Countries: Evidence From an Eclectic Model

Abstract: The study analyzes black market exchange rate behaviour in 18 African countries with pooled quarterly data over 1980 (I)-1991 (IV) period. Ideas contained in the existing frameworks—“real trade”, monetary and currency substitution ones—are synthesized in identifying the possible determinants of black market exchange rate tested for. Our findings suggest that money stock: depreciation of domestic currency, in the official market; expected depreciation of parallel rate; expected domestic inflation; and domestic interest rate cause domestic currency to depreciate in the parallel market while expected world inflation; domestic real GDP, and availability of foreign reserves have opposite effects. Résumé: Cette étude analyse le comportement des taux dc change du marché noir dans 18 pays africains en utilisant des données trimcstrielles groupées, étalées sur la période allant de 1980 (I) a 1991 (IV). Les concepts utilisés dans les modèles existants—ceux des “échanges réels” et de la substitution entre monnaics—sont synthétisés pour identifier les déterminants possibles des taux de change du marché noir. Les résultats dc l'analyse portent à croire que la masse monétaire, la dépréciation dc la monnaie locale sur le marché officiel, les anticipations dc dépréciation du taux parallèle, les prévisions d'inflation intérieure et les taux d'intérêt sur le marché intérieur engendrent unc dépréciation de la monnaie locale sur le marché parallèle, tandis que lcs anticipations d'inflation mondiale, lc PIB réel et la disponibilité dc réserves extérieures engendrent l‘éffet inverse.     

开放经济条件下我国货币需求研究

文章引入股票流通市值、汇率等变量对开放经济条件下我国货币需求函数进行全面研究。协整和误差修正模型结果表明：汇率是除社会消费品零售总额外影响我国长短期货币需求稳定的最重要的变量,并且对我国货币需求的影响很大;股票市场发展对我国长期和短期货币需求的影响很小。这一发现可为我国当前反通货膨胀的货币政策的制订提供重要的参考。为控制货币供应量,我们应该重点关注汇率波动。     

The external and domestic side of macroeconomic adjustment in China

This paper sheds new light on the external and domestic dimension of China’s exchange rate policy. It presents an open-economy model to analyse the macroeconomic adjustment process in China under both flexible and fixed exchange rate regimes. The model-based results indicate that persistent current account surpluses in China cannot be rationalized, under general circumstances, by the occurrence of permanent technology or labour supply shocks. As a result, to understand the macroeconomic adjustment process in China it is necessary to mimic the effects of potential inefficiencies, which induce the subdued response of domestic absorption to permanent income shocks, thereby causing the observed positive unconditional correlation of the trade balance and output. The paper argues that these inefficiencies can be potentially seen as a by-product of the fixed exchange rate regime, and can be approximated by a stochastic tax on domestic consumption or a time-varying transaction cost technology related to money holdings. Our results indicate that a fixed exchange rate regime with financial market distortions, as defined above, might induce negative effects on GDP growth in the medium term compared with a more flexible exchange rate regime.     

汇率，抗通胀的有效手段

Summary： This argument is primarily to demonstrate the reason that exchange rate adjustment can curb the inflation in China and to illustrate the defection that ＂tight＂ monetary policy lies in the anti-inflation activities. The reason is mainly concerned with the efficiency exchange rate policy has to address the inflation issues brought by excessive money supply as well as the need to maintain the relatively low prices in international commodity and to promote the economic restructuring . The defection from tight monetary policy is chiefly about its inability in cutting off liquidity and taping the domestic market potential.     

Dynamics of Money Market Interest Rates in Ghana: Time-Frequency Analysis of Volatility Spillovers

As the second longest practicing inflation targeting economy in Africa, it is of interest to investigate the degree to which policy interest rate influences other money market rates so as to gauge the overall effectiveness of monetary policy transmission in Ghana. This study evaluates the degree of connectedness among money market rates and also determines the most dominant money market rate(s) in Ghana. The basic finding is that the monetary policy rate has a low-to-moderate influence on volatility dynamics of other money market rates in Ghana across historical time-interval and time-frequency domains. This is a reflection of a generally weak capability of policy interest rate to drive other market rates in Ghana. Both monetary policy rate and Treasury bill rate are net transmitters of shocks, while interbank, lending and saving rates are net receivers of shocks in the money market. However, the Treasury bill emerges as the largest shock transmitter in the money market, across all forecast horizons and analytical domains. The lending rate is the largest shock recipient in the money market, largely from the Treasury bill rate which suggests ample evidence of fiscal dominance in Ghana. The study accentuates the exigency for monetary and fiscal policies to expeditiously address the domestic structural bottlenecks, especially in the financial sector and the fragile fiscal profile, in order to strengthen policy transmission in Ghana.     

我国出口汇率传递的非对称性:来自中日贸易的证据

文章扩展了Yang（2007）的厂商定价模型，对汇率传递非对称性、特点和成立条件进行理论分析，发现对称传递需要满足严格的条件，而现实中更常见的是非对称汇率传递。在一定条件下，商品需求弹性越大，越可能呈现出口国货币贬值传递率高而升值传递率低的特点。利用2000年1月至2011年12月我国出口日本的966种商品价格数据，发现汇率波动向价格传递具有非对称性：（1）人民币升值时，日元价格上涨较少；而贬值时，价格下降较多。我国出口商品的需求弹性较大，在日本市场上面对的是一个强竞争结构。（2）若月度升值超过一定幅度（测算约为2.43%），传递率又会有所上升，说明尽管日元价格易跌难涨，但在升值导致成本上涨较多、明显挤压利润时，厂商不得不适当提高日元售价。采用2000年至2018年9月日本从中国进口单位价值指数进行稳健性检验，得出类似结论。现阶段稳定的人民币名义汇率对我国出口企业是更为有利的。     

International relocation,the real exchange rate and effective demand

By introducing an international relocation mechanism into a two-country model, we analyze the effects of an increase in the corporation tax in the richer country on employment and effective demand in both countries. This taxation policy proves to produce not only enterprise relocation, but also depreciation in the real exchange rate. The latter is also shown to dominate the former, such that rich-country employment and effective demand are stimulated. However, the two countries respond in opposing ways regarding enterprise relocation and real exchange rate adjustment. Consequently, employment and effective demand in the poor country will fall.     

融资成本能评价新型货币政策工具的有效性吗

提升货币政策效果是近年来我国宏观经济调控改革中的重要任务,而如何正确评价货币政策有效性则是这一任务的前提条件。基于此,结合我国经济新变化,文章在经典的CC-LM模型中纳入了新型货币政策工具,从理论上分析了新型货币政策工具对信贷利率与实际产出的传导机制,并应用具有时变参数的TVP-SV-VAR模型进一步检验了理论分析的结论。理论研究与实证检验一致得出：第一,从对实际产出的影响来看,中期借贷便利为代表的新型货币投放方式是有效的;第二,中期借贷便利仅能降低短期信贷利率,而长期将提升信贷利率;第三,中期借贷便利与LPR报价市场的市场化程度提升可强化货币政策有效性。此外,实证研究还表明,依靠中期借贷便利方式投放基础货币会造成吉布逊谜团的现象,因此能否降低融资成本并不能作为评价货币政策有效性的指标。籍此,文章对如何优化新型货币政策有效性提出了富有建设性的政策建议。     

外汇储备对股票市场价格的影响——基于流动性视角的分析

文章选取2005年5月到2011年6月的月度数据,运用VEC模型对外汇储备对股票市场价格的影响进行了实证分析。结果显示,外汇储备是通过宏观层面的流动性对股市产生影响,外汇储备和货币供应量对股票市场价格的影响均比较小,主要原因是其传导机制比较复杂,且我国对信贷资金流入股市采取十分严厉的限制。相应地,文章提出了加强对流入股市热钱的监管;加强非流通股股东解禁的管理;深化一级市场改革发行制度,积极发展债券、期货等资本市场;完善宏观调控手段以及坚持严格信贷资金流入股市等政策建议。     

开放经济货币政策动态下人民币汇率问题研究

文章以汇率超调模型及其拓展为基础,突出货币供求(Ms-Md)与宏观经济短期波动的总供求(AS-AD)关联运行的作用机理,结合非线性宏观金融理论在货币供需分析中引入可交易金融资产,在资本管制货币扩张下,对人民币名义汇率动态进行综合判断。在此基础上进行实证研究,突出指示器变量的作用,为人民币汇率动态提供经验支持。通过建立指示器指标之间的线性回归关系,在货币需求方程的协整分析基础上,反解出货币供求均衡条件下所形成与宏观经济总供求相合意的名义汇率,即把反映宏观经济总供求运行的均衡货币因素代入指示器指标之间OLS关系中,反解出均衡水平下的合意名义汇率,结果表明从自身而言,人民币不具备升值诉求。     

Monetary policy under fixed exchange rates: Lessons from the Netherlands,Belgium, and Austria, 1973–1992

Summary The impact of domestic monetary policy in The Netherlands, Belgium and Austria on offsetting capital flows, interest rates and exchange rates is empirically investigated for the period 1973–1992. Offsetting capital flows are found to be incomplete for each country and lead to marginal interest and exchange rate effects only. A significant direct channel from excessive domestic creation to interest rises is present in Austria and to both interest and exchange rate rises in Belgium. No such effects are found for The Netherlands, possibly due to its adherence to targets for domestic money creation during the sample.This paper was written while the author was a visiting scholar at the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis. Manon den Dunnen provided excellent research assistance in collecting and summarizing available sources on actual monetary policy and instruments in Austria, Belgium, and The Netherlands. Useful comments on an earlier draft from Bill DeWald, Lex Hoogduin, Kees Koedijk, Ron van Rooden, Jack Tatom, Dan Thornton, Tom van Veen, and two anonymous referees are acknowledged. I am indebted to Paul Hilbers of the Dutch Central Bank for providing data on the exchange rate parities of the guilder and the Belgian franc during the 1970s. The usual disclaimer applies.     

Revisiting the Exchange Rate Pass‐Through to Inflation in Africa’s Two Largest Economies: Nigeria and South Africa

This paper revisits the exchange rate pass‐through (ERPT) to inflation in Nigeria and South Africa by incorporating structural breaks and using time series variables, namely the consumer price index, nominal effective exchange rate, gross domestic product, and crude oil price. Based on the Maki cointegration test and a flexible estimation approach of the Autoregressive Distributed Lag (ARDL) model, our empirical evidence suggests that the long‐ and short‐run ERPT to inflation is complete for Nigeria, while for South Africa it is incomplete both in the long run and short run. This result indicates that prices are stickier in South Africa compared to Nigeria. The comparison between Nigeria and South Africa confirms the role of inflation targeting and central bank credibility on the ERPT. The results divulge further that output growth in Nigeria increases inflation in the long run while it is anti‐inflationary in the short run. For South Africa, the effect of output growth is negatively insignificant. In addition, the long‐run effect of oil price is negative and significant for Nigeria, while for South Africa the short‐run effect of oil price is positive and significant. Therefore, the findings of this paper will assist the monetary authorities to achieve monetary policy objectives.     

我国外汇储备对基础货币影响的实证研究

在我国现行的外汇管理体制下,作为本外币政策的连接点,外汇储备及其变动会改变我国基础货币的投放,增强货币供给的内生性,影响中央银行的调控能力。本文运用协整理论和自向量回归(VAR)模型进行实证研究,证明了外汇储备对基础货币具有显著的正向影响,长期协整关系的约束力较强。需要通过调节国际收支、进一步改革外汇管理体制以及发展公开市场操作等新的冲销手段等方式解决这一问题。     

Policy Choices and Resilience to International Monetary Shocks

Abstract

The well-known trilemma theory states that the nominal exchange rate regime plays a crucial role in a country's ability to pursue monetary policy that is for its domestic objectives independent from other countries' influences. In particular, a flexible exchange rate is required for an independent monetary policy. Capital controls may help a country with a fixed exchange rate to gain some policy space but the effect of capital controls is leaky and often short-lived. We revisit these conventional wisdoms and find no strong evidence supporting them in practice. In particular, a flexible exchange rate does not reliably deliver monetary policy independence, but capital controls do. This is consistent with the view that most (developing) countries dislike either depreciation or appreciation of their currencies, and therefore would choose to follow US monetary policy moves even if they are on a flexible exchange rate regime. In other words, to build resilience to international monetary policy shocks, capital controls are a necessarily component.