The expansion of manufactured exports in developing countries: An empirical assessment of s upply and demand issues

Zusammenfassung Die Expansion der Industriegüterausfuhr aus Entwicklungsl?ndern: Eine empirische Analyse von Angebots- und Nachfragefaktoren. — Gegenstand der Untersuchung, die im wesentlichen auf den Ergebnissen von fünfzehn am Institut für Weltwirtschaft durchgeführten L?nderstudien aufbaut, ist die Frage, ob das Exportangebot von Entwicklungsl?ndern an Halb- und Fertigwaren elastisch auf staatliche Exportf?rderungsmaβnahmen reagiert und ob der Exportexpansion und -diversifizierung, von der Aufnahmef?higkeit der Industriel?nder her gesehen, enge Grenzen gezogen sind. Es wird gezeigt, daβ eine Exportf?rderungspolitik, die sich im realen effektiven Wechselkurs niederschl?gt, exportstimulierend wirkt. In übereinstimmung mit der Heckscher-Ohlin-Hypothese übernehmen dabei arbeits- und/oder rohstoffintensive Produkte die Rolle des Vorreiters; mit fortschreitender weltmarktorientierter Industrialisierung entstehen Spezialisierungsschwerpunkte dann im Bereich von Produktions- und Investitionsgütern mit standardisierter Technik. Daβ ein solcher Prozeβ der Exportdiversifizierung die Industriel?nder vor groβe strukturelle Anpassungsprobleme stellt, braucht, im ganzen gesehen, nicht befürchtet zu werden. Doch k?nnte in produktspezifischer Sicht hier und da der von Entwicklungsl?ndern ausgel?ste Angebotsdruck fühlbar werden und in Industriel?ndern protektionistische Abwehrmaβnahmen heraufbeschw?ren.

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Résumé L’expansion des exportations de produits manufacturiers des pays en voie de développement: Une analyse empirique des facteurs d’offre et de démande. — Le sujet de cette analyse, qui base généralement sur les résultats de quinze études de pays faites à l’Institut für Weltwirtschaft, est la question si l’offre d’exportation des pays en voie de développement concernant les produits demi-finis et finis réagit élastiquement aux mesures publiques de l’encouragement à l’exportation et s’il y a des barrières étroites pour l’expansion et la diversification des exportations de la part de la capacité d’absorption des pays industrialisés. Nous démontrons qu’une politique de l’encouragement d’exportation qui se traduit en réel taux de change effectif a de l’influence stimulante sur les exportations. Conformé à l’hypothèse de Heckscher-Ohlin les produits intensifs à main-d’oeuvre et aux premières matières jouent le r?le de l’avant-courrier, puis, suivant l’industrialisation avan?ante et orientée au marché mondial, il y a des points capitaux de spécialisation en domaine des biens de production et d’investissement avec une technique standardisée. En général il ne faut pas craindre qu’un tel procès de la diversification d’exportation mette les pays industrialisés en problèmes d’ ajustement. Cependant il est possible que la pression d’offre suscitée par les pays en voie de développement se manifeste en vue spécifique au produit ?a et là et provoque des mesures défensives protectives dans les pays industrialisés.

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Resumen La expansión de la exportatión de productos manufacturados de países en vía de desarrollo: Un análisis empírico de factores de la oferta y de la demanda. — El presente estudio, basado en investigaciones realizadas en el Institut für Weltwirtschaft sobre 15 países, tiene por objetivo analizar la elasticidad de la productión de manufacturas para la exportatión con respecto a medidas estatales de fomento y examinar la capacidad de absorción por parte de los países industrializados. Queda evidente que una política de fomento a la exportación, que se refleja en el tipo de cambio efectivo real, surte efectos positivos. De acuerdo con la hipótesis Heckscher-Ohlin se adelantan los productos intensivos en el uso de mano de obra y/o de primeras materias; a medida que avanza el proceso de industrialización hacia afuera surge la especialización también en los sectores de productos intermedios y de bienes de capital fabricados con una tecnología estandardizada. Ko hay por qué temer, desde un punto de vista macroeconómico, que este proceso de diversificación de exportaciones cause a los países industrializados serios problemas de reajuste estructural. Pero es posible que en el caso de algunos productos determinados la presión competitiva ejercida por los países en vía de desarrollo se haga sentir y origine medidas proteccionistas por parte de los países industrializados.

     

Income distribution,basic needs and trade-offs with growth: The case of semi-industrialized Latin American countries

This paper addresses income distribution issues and policy options to eliminate extreme poverty in a particular typology of middle-income semi-industrialized developing countries of Latin America. The countries included in the typology are characterized by a relatively high per capita income (above US$700/yr in 1977), a relatively high degree of industrialization (industry representing over 30% of GNP), a rather large size both in population and area, and relatively well endowed resources in agriculture. A distinctive feature is a strong inequality in the distribution of income and wealth relative to other countries of similar levels of per capita income. The countries included are Brazil, Columbia, Ecuador, Mexico and Peru, representing two-thirds of the population of that region.     

The role of technological learning in the exports of manufactured goods: the case of selected capital goods in Brazil

The object of this study is to explain the evolution of Brazilian capital-goods exports in terms of technological learning within the sector and government policy, but emphasizing the former. The study identifies relevant learning processes for eventual introduction into export-behaviour equations or as a basis for theoretical models. It starts from a series of eight microeconomic case studies of technologically sophisticated firms in Brazil. Among the specific issues addressed in the case studies are: (1) the nature of technological learning: are there recognizable sequences? Does it generally lead to products of increased technological complexity? (2) how (if at all) technological learning has benefited exports; (3) other endogenous firm spin-offs, principally from reputation effects, which were important for increased efficiency and for the emergence of exports; (4) the economic value of the firm's accumulated experience, and the factors determining it.     

Exchange rates and prices of Australian manufactured exports

Zusammenfassung Wechselkurse und Preise australischer Industriegüterexporte.- Die Beziehung zwischen Wechselkursbewegungen und den Preisen für handelbare Güter steht im Mittelpunkt der gegenw?rtigen Debatte darüber, wie wirksam die Wechselkurspolitik für die Anpassung der Leistungsbilanz ist. Diese Beziehung ist Wechselkurs-“Durchlauf” (pass-through) genannt worden und betrifft das Ausma?, in dem die Preise handelbarer Güter auf Ver?nderungen des Wechselkurses reagieren. In diesem Artikel werden die Durchlauf-Koeffizienten für die Industriegüterexporte Australiens in den 80er Jahren gesch?tzt, und zwar disaggregiert nach den Bereichen der zweistelligen ASIC. Die Untersuchung betont die strukturellen Merkmale und den institutionellen Rahmen, in dem der Handel der einzelnen Industriezweige stattfindet.

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R é s u m é Le taux de change et les prix des exportations manufacturées australiennes.- La relation entre les fluctuations du taux de change et des prix des biens commercialisés est le point décisif dans la discussion actuelle concernant l’efficacité de la politique du taux de change en mettant l’ajustement de la balance des paiements courants. Cette relation souvent nommée transmission du taux de change se réfère au degré avec lequel les prix des biens commercialisés réagissent aux changements du taux de change. Dans cette étude l’auteur examine les coefficients de la transmission pour les exportations manufacturées australiennes dans les années 1980 au niveau du 2-digit ASIC. L’analyse met l’accent sur les caractéristiques structurelles et le cadre institutionel dans lequel le commerce des branches industrielles est exécuté.

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Resumen Tasas de cambio y precios de las exportaciones manufactureras de Australia. - La relatión entre los movimientos de la tasa de cambio y los precios de bienes transables esta en el centra del debate actual sobre la efectividad de la pol’⩼ica de cambio al ajustar el balance de cuenta corriente. Esta relatión ha sido llamada “pass-through” de tipo de cambio y se refiere al grado en el cual los precios de los bienes transables responden a movimientos de la tasa de cambio. En este trabajo se estiman los coeficientes de tipo de cambio “pass-through” para las exportaciones de productos manufactureras de Australia en los a?os 80, con una désagrégatión al nivel de dos dígitos de la ASIC. El análisis enfatiza las característícas estructurales y el entorno institutional dentro del cual se lleva a cabo el comercio en cada una de las industrias manufactureras.

     

Trade policies,macroeconomic adjustment,and manufactured exports: The Latin American experience

Conclusions Changes in trade policy, especially in quantitative import restrictions, have played an important role in the macroeconomic adjustment in all six countries. For long periods, trade policy tightenings and occasional liberalizations were the main instruments of balance-of-payments policy. Most tightenings were preceded by a deterioration in the current account. In several cases tight import restrictions had adverse effects on output and, hence, on investment and growth. Since changes in trade policies, referred to here as episodes, were usually part of a policy package, it is difficult to isolate the effects of the episodes themselves. Sometimes they have been followed by current account improvements and other times by deteriorations.     

The cluster approach in the innovation development strategy of foreign countries

Foreign experience in carrying out cluster policy and the scales of distribution and the variety of cluster structure types abroad are considered and generalized. The main attention is given to innovation directivity as the key factor of increasing regional and national economic competitiveness. The important role of the state in formation of effective cluster policy providing substantial improvement in the business climate and stimulating the priority development of high-tech fields is placed in strong relief. The next issue of the journal will contain an article about the situation in Russia (Ed.).     

Contemporary protectionism and exports of developing countries

This paper is an investigation of recent changes in trade protection in developed countries and the implications for developing countries. Special attention is paid to the question of why flexible exchange rates have not removed the demands for commercial policy for balance-of-payments purposes, and why adjustment assistance schemes do not eliminate claims for protection from industry disruption. It is argued that there is a ‘hardening’ of protectionist measures with an increasing reliance on price controls, quantity controls and domestic subsidies. While an effort is made to avoid raising false alarms, particularly in recessionary times, the general conclusion that emerges is that the sources and nature of contemporary protection are such that the developing countries have reason for considerable concern about the state of commercial policy.     

The effect of the informal economy on bilateral exports from sub-Saharan African countries

The purpose of this study is to analyse the impact of the informal economy on bilateral exports in sub-Saharan African countries. We use a gravity model, to which we add indicators of the informal economy and indicator variables for different economic regions. The study used Pseudo-Poisson Maximum Likelihood (PPML) and Heckman estimation techniques on data from the period 2002–2018. The results show that the informal economy has a negative impact on bilateral inter-community exports and a positive impact on bilateral intra-community exports. These results thus support the idea that the informal economy can accelerate the integration of regional economic communities and ultimately facilitate the establishment of bilateral export free trade areas at the continental level.     

Determinants of structural change in food exports from developing countries

Over the past three decades, there has been a rapid expansion of processed food exports, replacing traditional agriculture exports such as coffee and tea. However, this development and its policy implications have received little attention in the literature. This paper provides an overview of key characteristics and growth patterns of processed food exports in developing countries. The determinants of structural change towards processed food exports in developing countries are examined using panel data econometric analysis. The results suggest that trade policy openness, large domestic markets, good macroeconomic management—especially in terms of price stability—adequate financial support and infrastructure are the key factors influencing the shift towards processed food exports.     

International subcontracting: Improved prospects in manufactured exports for small and very poor LDC's

In recent years one of the most dynamic manufactured export sectors in developing countries has been the assembly and processing operations subcontracted from multinational firms. The paper analyzes this relatively new phenomenon as a possible opportunity for the small and very poor developing countries to increase their manufactured exports. After making a case that domestic size and level of economic development are not preconditions of success in exporting manufactures, it is further argued that small and very poor countries may even have a comparative advantage in international subcontracting. Not only does international subcontracting avoid some of the traditional obstacles which these countries experience in exporting manufactures, but the gains from this activity seem to be particularly beneficial to them.     

Estimation of the manufactured export supply function from developing countries

Zusammenfassung Sch?tzung der Exportangebotsfunktion für Industrieerzeugnisse aus Entwicklungsl?ndern. — In dieser Arbeit werden zun?chst einige Schw?chen früherer empirischer Untersuchungen der Bestimmungsgründe für Industrieexporte aus Entwicklungsl?ndern diskutiert. Dann wird eine alternative Spezifikation angeboten, für die die relevanten Parameter mit Daten für Südkorea gesch?tzt werden. Der Ansatz besteht darin, j?hrliche Zeitreihen für 1963–71 und Querschnittsdaten für neun Industrien zu vereinigen. Die Ergebnisse der Studie zeigen, da\ das Verhalten der Koeffizienten für den effektiven Wechselkurs und die Kapazit?tsausnutzung uneinheitlich ist, w?hrend die gesch?tzten Koeffizienten für die Produktionskapazit?t, die Preise nichtgehandelter Güter und die verz?gerten endogenen Variablen durchweg das erwartete Vorzeichen haben und hoch signifikant sind, was darauf hindeutet, da\ diese drei Faktoren vermutlich die wichtigeren Determinanten des Exportangebots in Südkorea sind. Deshalb scheinen die Exporte mehr durch interne Angebotsfaktoren wie Produktionskapazit?t und die Preise nichtgehandelter Güter beschr?nkt zu sein als durch die Rentabilit?t des Exports.

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Résumé L’estimation d’une function d’offre des exportations manufacturières des pays en voie de développement. — Cet article premièrement discute quelques défauts des études empiriques recentes sur les déterminants des exportations manufacturières des pays en voie de développement. Puis, l’article offre une spécification alternative et des données ensemble avec des estimations empiriques des paramètres importants pour le cas de la Corée de Sud. L’approche dans cet article est de grouper les séries chronologiques annuelles (1963–71) et les données transversales (sur 9 industries). Les résultats de l’étude présente indiquent que la performance du coéfficient du taux de change effectif et du taux d’utilisation de capacité est mélangée, pendant que les coéfficients estimés de la capacité de productivité des prix des biens pas commercés, et de la variable endogène retardée ont le signe attendu en entier et sont fortement significatifs en indiquant que ces trois facteurs sont probablement les déterminants plus importants de l’offre d’exportation dans la Corée de Sud. C’est pourquoi les exportations apparaissent d’être plus restreintes par des facteurs d’offre internes comme la capacité de produire et les prix des biens pas commercés que par la profitabilité d’exporter.

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Resumen Estimación de una función de oferta de exportación de manufacturas des países en desarrollo. — Este artículo discute primeramente diversas limitaciones de estudios empíricos anteriores sobre los determinantes de exportaciones manufactureras de pa’ises en desarrollo. En seguida, el artículo presenta una especificación alternativa y datos junto con estimaciones empíricas de los parámetros relevantes para el caso de Corea del Sur. El planteamiento de este artículo es el de combinar series de tiempo anuales (1963–71) con datos de corte transversal (a través de 9 industrias). Los resultados del presente estudio indican, que el desempe?o del coeficiente de la tasa de cambio efectiva y de la tasa de capacidad utilizada es mezclado, mientras que los coeficientes estimados para la capacidad productiva, precios para los productos no comerciables, y variable endógena retarda son consistentemente del signo esperado y altamente significativos, indicando que estos tres factores son probablemente los determinantes más importantes de la oferta de exportación de Corea del Sur. De tal manera, las exportaciones parecen estar m’as constre?idas por factores de oferta interna, tales como la capacidad para producir y los precios de los bienes no comerciables, que por la rentabilidad de las exportaciones.

     

Rules of origin and exports in developing economies: The case of garment products

Relaxing restrictive rules of origin (ROO) in preferential market access can promote exports in developing economies by improving input sourcing flexibility, but actual ROO impacts remain an empirical question. This paper examines the European Union’s trade preferences, where origin requirements for knit and woven garment products were relaxed for beneficiaries in the Interim Economic Partnership Agreements (IEPA) from 2008 and for those in the Everything But Arms (EBA) scheme from 2011, respectively. The results show that ROO liberalization had little aggregate impact on knit and woven garment exports in IEPA beneficiaries, but increased the export values of woven garments in EBA beneficiaries by 36.3% during the post-period. Among EBA beneficiaries, duty-free imports of woven garments from Bangladesh and Cambodia into the EU increased sharply after ROO liberalization. These countries increased imported fabric from China, consistent with the theoretical prediction of ROO impacts. Thus, the impact of ROO on exports is heterogeneous across products and countries.     

The impact of trade facilitation factors on South Africa's exports to a selection of African countries

Economic growth can be enhanced through increased trade among countries, provided the correct institutional structures are in place. A country's trade is dependent not only on its own trade facilitation reforms but also on those of the trading partners. This paper, using an augmented gravity model, examines trade facilitation factors that impact on South Africa's exports to other selected African countries. The results of the estimation reveal the following. An improvement in the customs environment within the importing country provides the largest gain in terms of increasing trade flows, followed by the regulatory environment and domestic infrastructure. Furthermore, adjacency and common language impact positively on South African exports, while distance between countries impacts negatively on it. Being part of the Southern African Development Community is also enhancing exports from South Africa, compared with being part of the East African Community.     

Import substitution as a strategy of economic development

The reasons for the slowdown in Russia’s economic growth in 2012–2014 are considered. Different forms of modern import-substitution practices are analyzed.     

Employee job satisfaction in developing countries: The case of Kenya

Although developing countries that rely on agriculture continue to invest considerable amounts of resources toward the training of qualified agricultural manpower, the intensification of agricultural research, and the development of favourable agricultural policies, little attention is given to the organizational and social structure of the workplaces of the technical workers in agriculture. We argue that an understanding of what produces satisfied agricultural technicians is important in its own right, but is also important for indirectly increasing agricultural production in these developing countries. Following a social exchange theoretical argument, and using a national sample of technically trained agricultural personnel in Kenya, we identify the factors in the workplace that affect job satisfaction. Implications for management are drawn from these findings.     

Technical choice in developing countries: The case of leather manufacturing

The study examines the scope of technical choice in developing countries by viewing the evolution of technology in leather manufacturing and comparing alternative techniques for manufacturing upper leather from cattle hides. Two important conclusions have emerged. First, a developing country aiming to establish a leather manufacturing industry has a reasonably wide technical choice. Second, techniques using relatively higher labour and lower fixed capital generally appear to be better choices than more capital-intensive techniques.     

Scenario forecasting as an agricultural strategy development instrument

Methodological considerations that appeared in the previous issue of this journal are specified. The logic of socioeconomic threat formation is presented under an inertial scenario of agricultural development. The interdependence between improving the competitiveness of agricultural production, rural socioeconomic development, and nature management rationalization, which necessitates the elaboration of a comprehensive government policy, is demonstrated. A system of prognostic-analytical calculations is described; estimates are obtained to indicate a significant potential for increasing meat and dairy production and, hence, the strategic importance of the policy to improve the competitiveness of the Russian livestock industry. These findings may serve as the case for early development of a foundation for an agricultural and food policy, which is pertinent to the situation of approaching the “natural ceiling” of agricultural growth targeted at the domestic market.     

Preference erosion and the developing countries exports to the EU: a dynamic panel gravity approach

The erosion of preferences due to multilateral tariff reductions is a long-standing concern for many developing countries. This paper focuses on the erosion of the preferences granted by the EU in the rice industry. Since 2004 there has been a sharp decrease in border protection for the EU rice industry. Because the EU grants trade preferences to a considerable number of rice exporting developing countries, the reform implied preference erosion as well. By addressing the impact of preference erosion on developing countries rice exports to the EU, this paper contributes two original insights to the literature: first, by proposing a new empirical approach to compute the preference margin when tariff rate quotas are in force which is based on the assumption of the existence of fixed costs and economies of scale in international trade; second, by estimating the trade elasticities of preferences by means of a dynamic panel gravity equation to deal with the issues of endogeneity of preferences and persistency in bilateral trade flows. The results show that the way preference margins are calculated matters significantly when assessing the existence and extent of their erosion and the values of trade elasticities. Finally, the estimations highlight the fact that the impact of preferences is still very strong for some of the countries concerned.