Metaphor as Visual Thinking in Advertising and Its Effects: Focus on Brand Familiarity and Product Involvement

One of advertisers' favorite communication techniques is the visual metaphor. In fact, metaphor usage perennially increases in ad images. This study, which looks at consumers with varying levels of brand familiarity and product involvement, investigates how their attitudes and purchase intentions of are influenced by the persuasive effects of visual metaphors in various advertising conditions. The findings reveal that consumers' attitudes and purchase intentions are enhanced more by visual metaphor-based ads than nonmetaphor-based ads when the advertised product is in a low-involvement product category. Nonmetaphorical ads are found to have a more positive influence with high-involvement products than do metaphorical ads. The results show a significant three-way interaction effect. When the advertised product is in a low-involvement product category, visual metaphors lead to favorable brand evaluations and higher purchase intentions in the ads for a low-familiarity brand. However, nonmetaphors are more persuasive than visual metaphors only for the low familiarity brand in a high-involvement product category. Theoretical and practical implications are addressed in the discussion.     

Advertising Research

Abstract

The study reported examined effects of strength of ethnic identification, media placement, and ad racial composition on attitudes and purchase intentions among African-Americans. The effects of the independent variables were assessed via a two (strong ethnic identifier vs. weak ethnic identifier) by two (racially targeted vs. nontargeted media) by four (black model, white model, black-dominant integration, white-dominant integration) experimental design in the context of two personal care products: foundation, a race-based product, and perfume, a racially neutral product. Results indicate that strong ethnic identifiers generally have more positive evaluations of ads that feature African-Americans in positions of dominance and are placed in racially targeted media, whereas weak ethnic identifiers have more positive evaluations of ads that feature whites in positions of dominance and are placed in nontargeted media. In addition, the type of product advertised, whether it be specifically related to physical racial features or racially neutral, effects audience members' evaluations.     

Self-concept and advertising effectiveness: The influence of congruency,conspicuousness, and response mode

It was hypothesized in this study that advertising appeals congruent with viewers' self-concept would be superior to incongruent appeals in terms of enhancing advertising effectiveness. Advertising effectiveness was operationalized as: brand memory, brand attitude, and purchase intentions. The sample consisted of 165 subjects who were exposed to four test stimuli (ads), two for automobiles and two for shampoos. One ad within a product class used an introvert appeal, and the other used an extrovert appeal. Congruence between self-concept and the brand image was determined by subjects' evaluations of themselves and the advertised brand. Ad-related tasks included remembering brand names and indicating preference and buying intention for each brand. The study results indicate that brand memory is not mediated by the extent to which advertising expressions are congruent with viewers' self-concept. However, brand preference and purchase intention were shown to be influenced by the self-congruency of an ad. © 1995 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Calling It Out: The Impact of National Identity on Consumer Response to Ads With a Patriotic Theme

This study examined how ethnic minorities negotiate between ethnic and national identities and respond to ads that intend to appeal to consumers through patriotism. Specifically, this study proposed that activating ethnic minorities' national identity through a prime would affect their evaluation of ads with a patriotic theme. Further, this effect among ethnic minorities would be different from that among the majority. Findings from this study suggest that (1) Caucasian Americans (the majority group) responded more favorably to ads with a patriotic theme than did Asian Americans (ethnic minorities); (2) both Caucasian and Asian Americans became more positive in their ad evaluations when their American national identity was made momentarily salient through a national identity prime; and (3) the effect of national identity activation on evaluation of ads was greater among Asian Americans than among Caucasian Americans.     

The Influence of Bundling and Caloric Knowledge on Calories Ordered and Purchase Intent

This article investigates the impact of a bundle promotion on calories ordered and purchase intentions toward bundles in a fast food context. The results of our study show that consumers order more calories and have higher purchase intentions toward bundles when a bundle promotion is advertised than when it is not, particularly for consumers with low caloric knowledge. Moreover, the results suggest that the underlying mechanism influencing these results is consumers' perceptions that a bundle is considered an appropriate option among consumers.     

Does consumer knowledge affect consumer responses to advertised reference price claims?

As expected, internal reference prices (IRPs) and purchase intentions for two product categories (microwave ovens and disposable razors) differed according to whether consumers possessed a high or low level of consumer knowledge about the product in this factorial design experiment. Contrary to theory and expectations, neither internal reference points nor purchase intentions were affected by exposure to comparative price advertisements. Students were used as subjects in a before-after procedure with approximately two weeks between pre- and postmeasures of IRPs and purchase intentions. Postmeasures were taken immediately after exposure to ads containing three levels of advertised reference prices. t tests indicated differences between high and low knowledge group IRP means before ad exposure. However, no ANOVA differences were detected in change in IRP or purchase intention scores after ad exposure. © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

A Hong Kong view of offensive advertising

Considerable research has been conducted on offensive advertising in Western countries. However, not much is known about consumers' views of offensive advertising in an Asian context. This research, which was conducted in Hong Kong, aimed at identifying what product/service advertisements consumers find offensive, what executional styles consumers find offensive, consumers' tolerance of offensive advertisements in different media and the effects of offensive advertisements on consumers' purchase intentions. The results from a survey of 200 consumers showed that chat-line services and funeral services were considered the most offensive products or services to be advertised. When looking at the manner of advertising, sexist themes, indecent language and nudity were found to be the major reasons for the respondents finding advertisements offensive. In general, direct mail was considered to be a medium that prompts lower tolerance by consumers to potentially offensive advertisements while men and women's magazines were considered to be media that prompt higher tolerance to potentially offensive advertisements. Finally, it was found that levels of advertising offensiveness had an effect on purchase intentions.     

Effects of the number of advertised brands in a choice set: A metacognitive process

When product shelves feature more advertised brands, such that the choice set likely contains some familiar options, this subjective experience of familiarity could influence consumers' evaluations of chosen products and shopping experiences, through a metacognitive process. The findings of this study suggest that (a) a product shelf displaying some advertised brands, as opposed to no advertised brands, generates greater subjective familiarity, more favorable attitudes toward the purchased items, more shopping satisfaction, and greater intentions to revisit the store; and similarly, (b) a product shelf displaying more, as opposed to fewer, advertised brands generates greater subjective familiarity, more favorable attitudes toward the purchased items, more shopping satisfaction, and greater intentions to revisit the store. These outcomes result from a three‐step metacognitive process, whereby the subjective familiarity triggered by the presence of advertised brands influences judgments, through the effect of shopping pleasure. These results are robust for high‐ and low‐involvement products, as well as in contexts in which the prices of the advertised brands are higher than, lower than, or the same as those of the nonadvertised brands.     

Race,homophily, and purchase intentions and the Black consumer

Black consumers are an important market for advertisers to reach. However, designing effective communication strategies is difficult. This study examines the moderation effect of ethnic identification (strength of identity with other blacks) on the tie between advertising stimuli (with racially congruent or incongruent actors) and the subject's perceived homophily (similarity) toward actors featured in ads, and if perceived homophily influences purchase intentions regarding advertised products. ANOVA found a significant interaction between ethnic identity and racial congruity on the perceived level of homophily. In addition, a simple effect for racial congruity on perceived homophily was found. Regression analysis subsequently found a significant effect for the level of perceived homophily on the level of purchase intent. Strategic considerations for marketing advertisers and future research ideas are also presented. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

The Effect of Media Involvement on Print Advertising Effectiveness

Abstract

There is less than full agreement in the advertising research community over the relationship between involvement and advertising effectiveness. The purpose of this research is to extend that investigation into print. In a pre-post between-subjects design, 926 adults were exposed to test advertisements “tipped” (i.e., inserted) into a publication that they read regularly. Readers' attitudes and purchase intentions for the advertised products were collected before and after exposure to the ads. The results indicated that higher involvement with a publication leads to more favorable perceptions of embedded ads, and higher levels of advertising persuasion, while not impacting recall. Analyses of specialized effects indicated that, for the most part, main-effects results were robust across two types of advertisements, two print publication types, and two classes of products studied. The research has implications for how publishers set, and media planners evaluate, advertising rates, which are calculated predominantly according to the size of a publication's reader base. Based on our results, they should consider involvement when making these decisions.     

Children and advergames: the role of product involvement,prior brand attitude,persuasion knowledge and game attitude in purchase intentions and changing attitudes

The central aim of this study is to build upon previous research by investigating the role of product involvement, prior brand attitude, persuasion knowledge and game attitude in the brand attitude changes and purchase intentions of children after playing an advergame. In all, 279 respondents between the ages of 10 and 12 years participated in the study. First, they were asked to complete a pre-test survey addressing product involvement and prior brand attitude towards several products and brands. Two weeks later, the respondents were asked to play an advergame and complete a survey addressing brand attitude, purchase intention, persuasion knowledge and attitude towards the game. Our analysis reveals that a positive attitude change is more likely when the game player has already evaluated the brand positively. Furthermore, game attitude is positively related to attitude changes towards the advertised brands, consistent with affect transfer theory. Counterintuitively, a higher level of persuasion knowledge is associated with a higher intention to buy the advertised product. Finally, children who had a more positive attitude towards the game were more likely to report higher purchase intentions, indicating that games which provide good experiences positively influence behavioural intentions. We conclude the paper by discussing the study's limitations and suggestions for future research.     

Hope and self-regulatory goals applied to an advertising context : Promoting prevention stimulates goal-directed behavior

This article proposes the existence of two types of hope which differ in terms of self-regulatory goals: prevention hope and promotion hope. Consistent with the functional emotion approach and regulatory focus theory, we show that prevention hope generates more goal-directed behavior compared to promotion hope. Next, we replicate these findings in an advertising context. Results from three experiments show that prevention hope ads lead to more goal-directed consumer behaviors like (1) greater memory for product information, (2) greater willingness to test the advertised product, and (3) more intentions to focus on product information and undertake product-related action than promotion hope ads.     

Consumers' Responses to Implicit and Explicit Gay-Themed Advertising in Gay vs. Mainstream Media

ABSTRACT

Further study is needed to validate concerns over gay-themed ads appearing in mainstream media. This study investigates the effects of such ads by comparing them to the effects of gay-themed ads placed in gay media. The study delves into the differential effects of implicit and explicit visual messages. It also examines how consumers' attitudes toward homosexuality affect their purchase intention as well as advertising and brand evaluation. The study's findings suggest that implicit, rather than explicit, gay-themed ads lead to higher purchase intention and more favorable advertising and brand evaluation. The study results show that the type of advertising message (i.e., implicit or explicit gay-themed ads) moderates the relationship between gay-media and mainstream media. Finally, this study finds that a low level of tolerance toward homosexuality results in lower purchase intention as well as less favorable evaluations of both the advertising and brand. Managerial implications are also discussed.     

Negative Consequences of Storytelling in Native Advertising

Native advertising and storytelling are both increasingly popular advertising strategies. This research explores the effectiveness of storytelling in a native advertising context on social media. While most research recommends the use of stories as a way to build trust and relationships with consumers, the current research suggests that in the form of native ads on social media, narratives may be less effective when compared to informational native ads. Two studies find that even when advertising cues such as disclosure labels and brand presence are prominently located, consumers are less likely to recognize the advertising nature of narrative native ads when compared to informational native ads. Lower levels of advertising recognition are associated with increased perceptions of manipulative intentions by the advertiser, which has a negative influence on consumers' attitudes toward the ad. The findings suggest that native ads that clearly communicate their advertising nature through cues such as an informational execution, high brand presence, and prominent disclosure labeling are more effective than a narrative execution style.     

Effects of game‐product congruity on in‐app interstitial advertising and the moderation of media‐context factors

Advertising has become one of the major sources of game apps revenues and interstitial ads, in particular, are the most used monetization method among the types of in‐game mobile ad formats. Interstitial ads overlaid on top of a mobile game app have more obvious advertising intent and a higher degree of forced exposure and perceived intrusiveness. This study examined how the degree of congruity (high vs. moderate vs. low) between the promoted products in interstitial ads and the mobile game app environment affects consumers’ responses. The moderating effects of media‐context factors (i.e., excited– or calm–happiness game types and game immersion) were further assessed. The results of two experiments revealed that game‐product congruity lead to better consumers’ responses toward ads and advertised products. The positive effects of game‐product congruity were more salient when consumers played calm–happiness games and were less immersed in the game. Theoretical implications on integrating perspectives across disciplines such as schema theory, happiness, and immersion within the media‐context framework, as well as practical suggestions are discussed.     

In God we hope,in ads we believe: the influence of religion on hope,perceived ad credibility,and purchase behavior

This research proposes and demonstrates that religiosity positively affects consumers’ hope for advertised benefits, leading to greater perceived advertisement credibility and, consequently, a greater likelihood of purchasing the advertised products. A multiple-step mediation analysis revealed that both hope for advertised benefits and perceived ad credibility play pivotal roles in explicating the effect of religiosity, whether measured (study 1) or manipulated (study 2), on purchase intentions of advertised products. The authors also investigated the interactive effect between religiosity and perceived product materialism on the observed effects (study 3). The effect of religiosity on hope for advertised benefits, perceived ad credibility, and purchase intentions was moderated by perceived product materialism, such that the positive effects of religiosity on hope, perceived ad credibility, and purchase intentions were observed only for non-materialistic (vs. materialistic) products. Theoretical and managerial implications are discussed.     

The Role of Attachment Style in Shaping Consumer Preferences for Products Shown in Advertisements that Depict Consensus Claims

Consensus claims are often depicted in advertisements. The present research adopts an attachment theory (Bowlby 1969 Bowlby, John (1969), Attachment and Loss, New York, NY: Basic Books. [Google Scholar]) perspective to advance new insights into the effect of consensus claims in advertisements on consumers' purchase likelihood. Results of five studies demonstrate how the effectiveness of consensus claims in ads is circumscribed to specific individuals and that interpersonal attachment style is a key moderator. Specifically, among individuals with secure attachment styles, depicting consensus claims in ads enhances consumers' intentions to purchase the advertised product, but among individuals with anxious attachment styles, consensus claims are a less effective advertising tactic as they result in lower intentions to purchase the advertised product.     

The games people play: How the entertainment value of online ads helps or harms persuasion

This research examines consumer reactions to online ads varying in levels of entertainment value. Results show that more favorable brand attitudes and more positive purchase intentions are formed when consumers are exposed to an ad that generates a high (game ad), rather than a low (banner ad) level of entertainment value. However, such effects are qualified by consumers' shopping goals. When consumers have access to their goals to seek specific product information, affect transfer is impaired, such that the advantage of entertaining ads dissipates. This research also documents moderating roles of individual differences in need for cognitive closure and Internet usage versatility. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Effectiveness of promotional premiums: The moderating role of affective state in different contexts

This research explores the influence of affective state on ad and product judgments for advertising that features promotional offers of high and low price value. Consistent with expectations, Study 1 found that for happy participants, high‐price value premiums generated higher ad believability ratings, which in turn enhanced ad and brand attitudes. For sad participants, however, the positive effects of high‐price value premiums were attenuated due to message believability discounting. It is proposed that the moderating influence of affective state on responses to ads featuring premiums should be more likely to emerge when attention to premiums is high, as in situations where ads feature less important product attributes or when consumers plan to purchase a product. Study 2 found that the interaction between affective state and premium value was significant when ads featured less important product attributes, but not when they featured important product attributes. Study 3 found that the interaction was significant for participants who intended to purchase the product in the near future, but not for those who did not have purchase intentions. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.