Tackling age discrimination in employment in Singapore

In a country with an ageing work-force, a decline in the number of new entrants to the labour market and an acute labour shortage, it would be reasonable to assume that employers would encourage older workers to remain in employment for as long as possible. In the case of Singapore, however, private sector employers often retired employees at age 55 and hired younger workers in their place. In many cases older workers re-hired had to accept lower pay and lower grade jobs. In an attempt to tackle this sort of age discrimination in employment, the government passed the Retirement Age Act in 1993. Prior to its enactment, the government urged employers to raise the retirement age voluntarily, but the response was poor, especially in the non-unionized sector. This paper argues that employers resisted the extension of the retirement age because they perceived older workers in stereotypical terms. The main issues which gave rise to the Retirement Age legislation are discussed. So also is the possible impact of the legislation on some HRM practices. The paper also proposes some future directions for research on older workers in Singapore.     

Are Suburban Firms More Likely to Discriminate against African-Americans?

This paper assesses whether African-Americans are more likely to experience employment discrimination in the suburbs relative to the central city. We compare central city–suburban differences in racial hiring outcomes for firms where whites are in charge of hiring to the comparable difference for firms where blacks are in charge of hiring. Both suburban black and white employers hire fewer blacks than their central-city counterparts. This geographic gap among black employers is at least as large as that of white employers. Assuming no discrimination by black employers in any location, this implies that the probability of experiencing discrimination does not vary over space. Black firms, however, are substantially more likely to hire black workers regardless of location.     

Pretty Vacant: Recruitment in Low-Wage Labour Markets

This paper is a study of the process by which employers in five relatively low-wage British firms fill vacancies. It studies the determinants of the number and quality of applicants, the way in which these applicants are selected for interviews and offered jobs. The main conclusions are that thenumber of applicants is relatively small, the monetary and non-monetaryaspects of jobs are important determinants of the number of applicants forjobs, but that firms do eventually fall virtually all vacancies. Non-employedjob applicants have more difficulty in getting a job interview than those whoare currently employed but, once interviewed, do not appear to face any further difficulties in getting employment.     

Sexual orientation discrimination in the labour market

This research examines the possible discrimination faced by gay men compared to heterosexuals when applying for jobs in the Greek private sector. This issue was addressed through the observation of employer hiring decisions. Mailing pairs of curriculum vitae, distinguished only by the sexual orientation of the applicants, led to the observation that gay men faced a significantly lower chance of receiving an invitation for an interview. However, in cases where employers called applicants back, the wages offered did not differ significantly between gay and heterosexual applicants. Nevertheless, there is substantial evidence to suggest that discrimination based on sexual orientation does exist in the Greek labour market, and at alarmingly high levels.     

The effects of age and family constraints on gender hiring discrimination: A field experiment in the French financial sector

Using correspondence testing, we investigate whether age and family constraints have an effect on the gender gap in access to job interviews. We sent job applications from three pairs of candidates to the same job advertisements in the French financial sector between January and March 2002, focusing on low-skilled administrative or commercial jobs and high-skilled administrative or commercial jobs. Within each pair, the applicants' characteristics were similar except for gender. We compare the gender gap in access to job interviews for single and childless applicants aged 25 and 37. We find significant hiring discrimination against women aged 25 applying for high-skilled administrative jobs. Young men are preferred to young women when employers offer long-term contracts. Among single and childless applicants aged 37, we find no significant hiring discrimination against women. We then compare the gender job-access gap for applicants aged 37 who are single and childless or married with three children. We do not find significant hiring discrimination against female applicants aged 37.     

Are Reports of Discrimination Valid? Considering the Moral Hazard Effect

A bstract .   Antidiscrimination laws are designed to prompt employers to stop excluding black workers from jobs they offer and from treating them unequally with respect to promotion and salaries once on the job. However, a moral hazard effect can arise if the existence of the laws leads black employees to bring unjustified claims of discrimination against employers. It has been argued that employers may become more reluctant to hire black workers for fear of being subjected to frivolous lawsuits.
Using the Multi-City Study of Urban Inequality (MCSUI), we find that male and female black workers are far more likely than whites to report racial discrimination at work. This is the case even when a host of human capital and labor market factors are controlled for. Further, nearly all black workers who report they have been discriminated against on the job in the MCSUI Surveys also show statistical evidence of wage discrimination. This is not the case for white males or females. We find little evidence to support a moral hazard effect.     

Employers' hiring practices,employment protection,and costly search: A vacancy-level analysis

An employer with a vacancy may respond to high search costs by lowering hiring requirements. While such an adjustment increases the employer's chances of filling the vacancy, it also more likely results in a match that terminates when the match is hit by match-specific productivity shocks. Drawing on a novel Slovenian vacancy dataset, we find that employers who are searching to fill temporary positions are more likely to hire underqualified workers when search costs are high. We find that search costs are taken into consideration when employers are searching to fill permanent positions in some specifications but not all. These findings suggest that for employers who are searching to fill a permanent position, the benefits of lowering hiring requirements when search costs are high are likely outweighed by: a) high firing costs if an under-qualified worker is hired on a permanent contract or b) the costs of undertaking a new search later if an under-qualified worker is hired on a temporary contract. These are novel findings about the employers' hiring practices in the presence of employment protection laws and costly search.     

Paths into the economy: structural barriers and the job hunt for skilled PRC migrants in Canada

Well-educated and trained Chinese professionals immigrating to Canada face barriers in finding jobs. To understand this wastage of human capital, we see entry to the professions as mediated by frameworks. The social construction of careers influences the demand for labour. Human capital is a social construct defined by certification procedures in Canada and by the way Canadian employers perceive appropriate matches of jobs and job applicants. Their demand for people with 'Canadian experience' blocks entry into higher-level jobs. The study interviewed thirty-two couples in 1999-2001 using qualitative methods to learn about their experiences finding jobs in Toronto.     

Tracing the connections: short-termism,training and recession

It is frequently claimed that some employers act to maximise short-term gains at the expense of long-term rewards, hence reducing the level of employee training. In addition, during a recession such employers are expected to be the keenest to make further cutbacks. This paper examines the empirical validity of these two claims by examining the links between three proxies for short-termism and the incidence and volume of training activity as well as recession-induced changes to training expenditure and the proportion of the workforce trained. The results are based on establishment-level data taken from 67,599 private sector employers in England in 2009 and enriched with data from other sources (with sample sizes falling accordingly). The results suggest that short-termism plays a role in explaining both the level of training activity supported by employers and its sensitivity to the economic cycle. However, the results are rather ambiguous with one of the proxies suggesting that, contrary to theoretical reasoning, training incidence and volume is higher, not lower, in establishments which belong to stock market listed rather than unlisted enterprises. To make further analytical headway, then, direct measures of short-termism are needed rather than indirect, albeit improved, measures of the type used here.     

Pensions, non-discrimination policies, and the employment of older workers

This paper analyzes firms' decisions to hire older workers. We model, the role of pensions in back-loading pay for specifically trained workers. We then evaluate the effects, of imposing age discrimination rules and non-discriminatory fringe benefit rules, and analyze the consequences for the firm's decision to hire older versus younger individuals. The model predicts that defined benefit pension plans deter the hiring of older workers, but only if hired for entry level position. The reason is f hat the wages of this group cannot be lowered enough to pay for the benefits. Data from a new survey of employers are used to test this hypothesis. The findings show that a more generous defined benefit pension plan reduces employment prospects for older, entry level workers. Employers offering defined benefit pension, plans employ older workers, but tend not to hire them into entry level jobs.     

Spatial and Temporal Patterns of Commercial Burglaries

A bstract . The factors that are crucial in predicting burglary of commercial establishments are evaluated. Burglars are rational in their choice of target, in that they consider both the revenue generated by the burglary and the chances of being apprehended. Location of the target plays a major role; establishments located within three blocks of heavily travelled thoroughfares are less vulnerable to burglary than those located further away. The wealthier the community, the higher the probability of burglary of its commercial establishments. Retail establishments and businesses which are located in office parks are most vulnerable to burglary. Establishments which have been in business less than one year are more likely to be burgled; the longer a store is in business, the less likely it is to become a victim of burglary. Burglar alarms are the most effective deterrent available to commercial establishments, followed by the installation of exterior and interior lights. In general, the probability of burglary of non-alarmed properties is 4.57 times higher than of similar alarmed property. The study is based upon a detailed survey of commercial establishments in three suburban communities of Philadelphia. These communities vary in their locational, physical and socio-economic characteristics and represent many suburban localities throughout the United States.     

Matching processes in the labour market an econometric study

This paper presents empirical results on matching in the labour market in Marseilles (France). Using a sample of meetings between employers and workers organized by a local employment office, we infer from estimation results that selection among applicants is on the basis of their level of education. The strength of this selection bias is substantially caused by the poor quality of the screening performed by the employment office. Employers appear also to discriminate against the youngest applicants, the long-term unemployed and applicants of North-African extraction. These effects are alleviated when employers face a labour supply constraint in the labour market.     

Field Perspectives on the Causes of Low Employment Among Less Skilled Black Men

This article presents findings from a unique survey that assessed explanations for low black male employment by questioning participants in a low skill labor market. Black men identified barriers to hiring—including felony convictions, drug testing, low skill levels, and bias—as major reasons for their non‐employment. Employers believed black male applicants were less likely to have the desired interpersonal skills and work ethic, and that they were less likely to pass pre‐employment drug tests.     

The influence of images on organizational attractiveness: comparing Chinese,Russian and US companies in Germany

In developed markets, Emerging Market Multinational Enterprises’ (EMNEs) organizational attractiveness may crucially depend on applicants’ country and corporate character images (CCIs). Applying image and signaling theory, this study compares the influence of these images on the organizational attractiveness of Chinese, Russian and US companies in Germany. Employing data from 287 German business students, findings show that applicants prefer US over Chinese and Russian companies as future employers, confirming the existence of the liability of emergingness. Moreover, findings indicate gender differences in applicants’ attraction toward EMNEs. In particular, female applicants are less attracted to EMNEs with a bad CCI than male applicants are.     

The Meaning and Determinants of Skills Shortages

In this paper we use establishment-level data to examine what managers mean when they report having skills shortages. We find that the concept of a skills shortage is not always the same as a hard-to-fill vacancy despite the latter being used by many authors who have considered the economic consequences of skills shortages. It seems that, while employers appear not to have any problems for themselves in interpreting questions on ‘skills shortages’, we cannot rely on them being perceived in a uniform way by all employers. Indeed, many employers stress that, amongst both their existing workforce and job applicants, there appear to be important shortfalls in motivational and attitudinal skills, leading us to believe that social skills are an important part of the skills said to be in shortage. Our findings point to two main conclusions for future research. First, studies that investigate the causes and effects of ‘skill shortages’ need to pay greater attention to their definition and measurement. Secondly, in future research on establishments and their skill formation practices, further steps could be taken to gain clarification either directly or indirectly from respondents as to the experiences they choose to classify as a skills shortage.     

Job suburbanization,zoning and the welfare of urban minority groups

This paper poses a model of the effects of job suburbanization and suburban exclusionary zoning on the welfare of blacks and other urban minority groups. It explores the circumstances under which blacks take suburban jobs and whether they are made better off if they do so. The possibilities that blacks outcommute from central area ghettos and that they relocate to suburban housing near the jobs are each considered. A hypothetical governmental project to subsidize the creation of 10,000 suburban jobs for blacks is explored in a cost-benefit framework, stressing the effects of suburban exclusionary zoning on the project's feasibility.     

Non‐competes,business dynamism,and concentration: Evidence from a Florida case study

Most research on non‐competes has focused on employees; here we study how non‐competes affect firm location choice, growth, and consequent regional concentration, using Florida's 1996 legislative change that eased restrictions on their enforcement. Difference‐in‐differences models show that following the change, establishments of large firms were more likely to enter Florida; they also created a greater proportion of jobs and increased their share of employment in the state. Entrepreneurs or establishments of small firms, in contrast, were less likely to enter Florida following the law change; they also created a smaller proportion of new jobs and decreased their share of employment. Consistent with these location and job creation dynamics, regional business concentration increased following the law change in Florida. Nationwide cross‐sections demonstrate consistent correlations between state‐level non‐compete enforcement and the location, employment, and concentration dynamics illustrated in Florida.     

Resolving the conflict between clients’ privacy rights and employees’ equal employment opportunity rights

It is unlawful under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act for employers to discriminate against applicants or employees because of their sex unless sex is a bona fide occupational qualification (BFOQ). During the past two decades, a number of courts were asked to decide whether sex is a BFOQ for the purpose of protecting clients’ privacy rights (i.e., whether employers could insist that employees be of the same sex as their clients for those jobs which required employees to touch or view clients’ bodies in various stages of undress). This investigation examined relevant judicial opinions rendered throughout the United States to determine how the courts resolved this conflict between clients’ privacy rights and employees’ equal employment opportunity rights.     

Foreign ownership,human capital,and the structure of wages in Japan

We examine the differences in the structure of wages between domestic and foreign-owned establishments in Japan. We use high-quality datasets from the Japanese government and construct a large employer–employee matched database consisting of 1 million workers in 1998. Our results confirm that foreign-owned establishments in Japan pay higher wages. We estimate that one percentage increase in foreign-ownership share of equity raises wages by 0.3%. We surmise that this foreign-ownership wage premium can be explained, at least in part, by compensating wage differentials. Workers in foreign-owned establishments are not protected by lifetime employment. They receive higher compensation for being exposed to higher risk and forfeiting their employment security. We also find that in foreign-owned establishments, wages are determined more by general skills, and less by firm-specific skills. These effects become more pronounced among establishments with a higher share of foreign ownership. The gender wage gap is considerably smaller among foreign establishments. Given the lack of long-term prospects for women in the Japanese labor market, foreign-owned establishments may be one source of ‘brain drain’ for highly skilled women there.     

Flexible Working Hours, Family Responsibilities, and Female Self-Employment

ABSTRACT Using cross-sectional data from the Contingent Work Survey of the February 1995 Current Population Survey, we present direct evidence that there are substantial gender differences in the reasons why individuals become self-employed. In particular, women–especially women with young children–are more likely than men to cite flexibility of schedule and family-related reasons for becoming self-employed. Men's reasons for becoming self-employed show little association with their parental status. Our findings suggest that employers should be encouraged to offer working conditions that are more friendly to workers whose family obligations conflict with traditional, forty-hour-per-week jobs.