Agricultural landscape dynamics in response to economic transition: Comparisons between different spatial planning zones in Ningbo region,China

Many major agricultural regions worldwide are experiencing drastic landscape transformations. Examining the complex links among agricultural landscape dynamics (ALD), land use and land cover (LULC) change, socioeconomic development and government planning is pivotal to enhance the efficiency of agricultural landscape management. With a case of the Ningbo region (China), this paper employs the structural equation modeling (SEM) to quantify and compare the relationships between ALD and economic transition as well as the mediating LULC factors in different spatial planning zones. ALD are quantified by time series remotely sensed imageries and a set of landscape metrics; and economic transition is described by a set of indicators from three aspects (globalization, decentralization and marketization). Results show that ALD present similar trend in the two spatial planning zones between 1979 and 2013. However, the magnitude of ALD is larger in the non-urban planning zone. In particular, agricultural landscapes change into the fragmented, irregular, decreased, and isolated patterns at a more rapid pace. Economic transition drivers and LULC mediators differ remarkably between the two spatial planning zones. For the urban planning zone, economic transition influences ALD through construction land morphological changes and water body spatial density increases. For the non-urban planning zone, economic transition influences ALD through forest morphological changes and construction land spatial density increases. In addition, the relative importance of ALD determinants differs between the two spatial planning zones. Marketization plays a more critical role in driving ALD in the urban planning zone, while decentralization has a stronger impact on ALD in the non-urban planning zone. It is argued that land use master plan for agricultural landscape protection should be implemented in the non-urban planning zones and land use plan in the two spatial planning zones should be integrated. This study contributes to the understanding of the complex mechanism of ALD in response to economic transition.     

Historical oblique aerial photographs as a powerful tool for communicating landscape changes

This paper reports on a potential new form of data generation and data display to be used for communicating landscape change at local scales, utilizing a huge collection of oblique aerial photographs held by the Royal Library in Copenhagen. The collection contains local scale imagery covering all parts of Denmark recorded between 1930 and 1990 and thus has the potential to illustrate the changes which took place in the rural landscape as a whole after the Second World War, in ways which are suited for use at local scales. Taking into account that landscape change normally happens at a slow rate relative to the perceptive scale of humans, with fine grained changes taking place continuously in local settings, images of this kind present themselves as a way for the general public to become aware of changes which might otherwise be overlooked. To a still more urbanized population where most people do not have an every-day experience with rural landscape change, the images may be a starting point for a renewed engagement with landscapes, not just perceived as a scenery, but rather as a process of interaction with the environment. In order to inform a wider range of people, in competition with other types of information, the imagery provides a point of reference – a single farm or landscape known to the users – which people without specific training in landscape research can relate to. The use of a crowdsourcing approach in data generation on a webgis application means that the broader public is both involved in the creation of the data and in the discussion about the changes observed, which become visible when comparing old aerial photographs to the present landscape. In combination with the very local nature of the aerial photographs, this opens up the possibility that the images could serve as a communicational bridge between “abstract” scientific knowledge about landscape change (e.g. change in hedgerow density per year) and the local landscapes where people are living. As such, the approach described in this paper may contribute to the objectives set out in the European landscape convention to facilitate an increased understanding of landscape issues among the public through a democratic learning process. The article concludes, that this approach has a huge potential, although some difficulties exist, relating to the challenge of maintaining a focus on the landscape when using a form of communication which is dialogue-based and relatively unstructured compared to approaches embedded within conventional learning environments.     

Bridging the gap between research and planning practice concerning landscape in Swedish infrastructural planning

A number of government documents provide for the fact that the surrounding landscape is to be considered when any infrastructure is built in Sweden. However, only certain aspects of the landscape are dealt within the various types of documents involved in the planning process. There has been considerable research into landscape, both in Sweden and abroad; unfortunately, however, this research has not been utilized by infrastructure planners. This paper discusses the reasons for this gap between research and planning practice as regards landscape, as well as problems with current infrastructure sector efforts concerning the landscape. Furthermore, the paper proposes ways in which current working methods can be changed by improving knowledge of the character of landscapes, a matter that is a structural element of the European Landscape Convention (ELC).     

高校校园土地利用与景观格局分析研究

为讨论西北农林科技大学校园景观布局的优劣,对今后规划工作提供依据,以CAD校园平面图和高清遥感影像为基础资料,采用独创性的景观划分法,利用ArcMap获取南北校区校园土地利用与景观格局的空间分布,并运用各类景观指标,对景观格局进行定量分析。结果表明:南校区各景观的破碎度均大于北校,而优势度偏低;就全校范围来看,多样性、均匀度、优势度最大的分别为生活景观(1.858)、绿地景观(0.97)、娱乐景观(0.617),娱乐景观的均匀度最低,绿地景观的优势度最小;北校区的建筑设施(包括教学、生活、娱乐、附属设施)对景观的支配作用较大,南校区各景观受人为因素影响较大。简而言之,全校景观空间格局分布合理,功能区划协调统一。     

基于GIS的大连市金州区绿地景观格局分析

本文运用Fragstats 4.2软件以研究区内防护绿地、公园绿地、农林用地的空间数据为基础,选择斑块数、平均斑块面积、斑块密度、景观形状指数、景观分维数、最大斑块指数,为量化分析指标,来研究每个绿地的景观破碎程度、形态指数和景观优势度,通过这三个维度实现对该研究区内的绿地系统进行全面立体化的综合评价.     

Progressive fragmentation of a traditional Mediterranean landscape by hazelnut plantations: The impact of CAP over time in the Langhe region (NW Italy)

Land use change is strongly modifying the traditional landscape of hilly productive Mediterranean sites. An example of these circumstances is the Langhe region (Piemonte, NW Italy), where woody plantations such as vineyards and orchards have been cultivated on hillslopes for centuries. In this paper we assess landscape changes occurred in the Diano study area (2651 ha) in the 1954–2000 period and we ascertain land use transition paths and rates of this rural ecosystem. Land use mapping obtained from object-oriented analysis of aerial photographs was used to quantify land use changes between 1954 and 2000. To examine the spatio-temporal patterns of land use change over time, a set of spatial statistics capturing different dimensions of landscape change was identified. An increase of landscape heterogeneity from 1954 to the present was observed due to the expansion of orchards and the fragmentation of field crops. A significant portion (55%) of current orchards surface is represented by former field crops, 24% by vineyards and 15% by forests. The strong expansion of hazelnut orchards concurred to the fragmentation of traditional rural landscape was dominated by vineyards, field crops and forests. Hazelnut orchards expansion was mainly located in places where grapes cultivation was less remunerative. A further expansion of hazelnut in the area should be planned, discussed and carefully monitored through change detection studies in order to avoid potential unsustainable use of the land.     

常德市土地利用空间格局变化及驱动力分析

1997～2004年,湖南省常德市土地利用现状和空间特征入手,对比,各类土地利用空间格局的数量变化、结构变化和景观特性,可以看出:常德市土地利用变化的主要特征是林地、水域、建设用地面积的增加而耕地相应的减少;利用相关分析方法,分析了土地利用空间格局变化的主要驱动因子,揭示人口增长、农村经济发展、城建扩张、土地管理政策是常德市土地利用变化的主要驱动力。     

Collaborative governance arrangements to deliver spatially coordinated agri-environmental management

Several studies show that agri-environment schemes (AES) are likely to be more effective if they are designed at the landscape scale. However, this requires spatial coordination of environmental management across multiple farm holdings and collaboration among governmental and other actors, including, possibly, groups of farmers. In this study we analyse alternative approaches to spatial coordination and collaboration. Through case studies from five EU member states in North West Europe we analysed collaborative governance arrangements, from the perspective of the distribution of governance tasks among collaborating actors and changes to these over time. Of these governance tasks, spatial coordination had our particular interest. The collaborative governance arrangements were shaped in various ways. In four out of five case studies a group of farmers had become involved in the performance of more governance tasks over time. In all cases a professional(ized) organisation (governmental organisation or a group of farmers) was responsible for spatial coordination, possibly due to the complexities inherent to a landscape approach. In relation to the change of schemes over time, we argue that adaptive collaborative governance, incorporating learning, monitoring and evaluation in the governance arrangements, is key to effective agri- environmental management.     

Impact of land ownership and altitude on biodiversity evaluated by indicators at the landscape level in Central Italy

This study analyzed the ecological role of agroecosystems in maintaining landscape diversity and sustainability using selected indicators and indexes in Central Italy. The study focuses on analysing ecological systems at the landscape level to assess the environmental sustainability in terms of land cover composition and diversity. We used geographical information systems, landscape fragmentation and heterogeneity to determine the ecotone types and patch characteristics and gather useful information based on ownership (private and public areas) and altitude (plain, hilly, and mountain areas).The results showed that private areas had major landscape heterogeneity, which increased both the presence of ecotones and land cover diversification. There was a higher level of landscape heterogeneity and land cover diversification in plain and hilly areas, where agriculture was mostly present. There was also an increase of margins and/or hedgerows. Publicly owned areas generally had permanent land cover types, such as woods and pastures with low human influence, that induce biodiversity conservation. Privately owned areas were mainly characterized by cultivated land with high human influence that requires careful biodiversity management. However, most important ecological structures, such as ecotones, occurred where human land use intensity was at its highest level (plain-hilly areas and private ownership areas), and this could help to maintain and increase the biodiversity of the agricultural landscape. In Central Italy, there is an acceptable level of landscape sustainability achieved by integrating both private and public types of management.     

Characterizing European cultural landscapes: Accounting for structure,management intensity and value of agricultural and forest landscapes

Almost all rural areas in Europe have been shaped or altered by humans and can be considered cultural landscapes, many of which now are considered to entail valuable cultural heritage. Current dynamics in land management have put cultural landscapes under a huge pressure of agricultural intensification and land abandonment. To prevent the loss of cultural landscapes, knowledge on the location of different types of cultural landscapes is needed. In this paper, we present a characterization of European cultural landscapes based on the prevalence of three key dimensions of cultural landscapes: landscape structure, management intensity, and value and meaning. We mapped these dimensions across Europe at a 1-km resolution by combining proxies on management intensity and landscape structure with new indicators such as social media usage and registered traditional food products. We integrated the three dimensions into a continuous “cultural landscape index” that allows for a characterization of Europe’s rural landscapes. The characterization identifies hotspots of cultural landscapes, where all three dimensions are present, such as in the Mediterranean. On the other hand, Eastern and Northern European cultural landscapes are mostly characterized by only one of the dimensions. Our paper can help to identify pressures to cultural landscapes and thus to target measures for the conservation of these landscapes, to link similar landscapes in different regions, and to inform policy design on the most important characteristics of cultural landscapes at a regional scale.     

Climate change versus land-use change—What affects the mountain landscapes more?

Land use and climate change are both strong drivers of landscape transformation. Using a representative valley of the Central Alps (Stubai Valley, Tyrol, Austria) we assess (1) the historical and likely future spatial patterns of land use/land cover (LULC), (2) the influence of temperature increase on the LULC distribution, and (3) the speed at which these changes will occur. Based on the historical landscape development and spatially explicit models, the effects of various land use and climate scenarios were modelled. Employing a pan-Alpine model, we were able to detect the temporal trajectory of spatial reforestation. The results show that land-use changes that already occurred during the last decades are responsible for the main future LULC changes (by secondary succession). Only an extreme land abandonment scenario and extreme climate scenarios (5 K temperature increase) would bring about similar changes in LULC distribution and expansion of the forested areas. While alpine grasslands, alpine pioneer formation and glaciers would shrink drastically, especially deciduous forests would spread. To a considerable degree, such changes might take place over the next 300 years. By contrast, the increase in forest areas triggered by temperature changes would be slower and longer termed (up to 700–800 years).The effects and intensity of land-use change in the investigated valley, that is comparable to many regions in the Alps, will be at least equally severe and responsible for transformation of the landscape as those of a projected temperature increase.     

In landscape management all of us have something to say. A holistic method for landscape Preservability evaluation in a Mediterranean region

Landscape assessment methods have traditionally valued the landscape through a panel of experts with little or no participation of the population. However, after the adoption of the European Landscape Convention (ELC), the perception and the participation of the population has played an increasingly important role in landscape evaluation and planning. In this regard, the goal of this paper is to develop a model able to evaluate and integrate both the objective and subjective landscape factors into a new concept: the Preservability. This model, as well as selecting and classifying the landscape attributes according to the bio-geographic features of the study area i.e., Ricote Valley (Region of Murcia, Spain), includes two online surveys: one to assess the populatiońs landscape preferences and the other to obtain the specific weight of each objective and subjective landscape factor from a panel of experts. These landscape factors were incorporated into a GIS. To obtain the best model, the Preservability was assessed from three different approaches: objective, objective-weighted and weighted. The final results demonstrate how the Preservability weighted method returns different thresholds appropriate to the landscape attributes, the population’s perceptual preference and the protected areas. The different thresholds allows for priority areas to be identified for protection, as well as the adoption of appropriate management and planning strategies according to the landscapes characteristics, current state and uniqueness.     

Adaptive responses to landscape changes from onshore wind energy development in the Republic of Ireland

Covering 26 years of Irish onshore wind energy development, this article tracks patterns in landscape changes from wind farm construction and identifies adaptive responses in public policy and by stakeholder groups. Wind farms face well-documented challenges with social acceptance due to landscape changes; however, little research has examined interactions between landscape change and social adaptations over the long-term. This article systematically reviews 20 policy documents, undertakes spatio-temporal linear modeling of 212 wind farms using 9 landscape change metrics, and analyzes 5 stakeholder group interviews on adaptive responses to landscape changes. Upward trends occur in turbine height, impact accumulation, placement in agricultural landscapes, construction delays, and new farms built per year. Downward trends occur in the number of turbines per farm, visual disruption of protected areas, and placement in wetlands. Key patterns in stakeholder groups’ adaptations include conflicting interpretations of landscape amenities and evolution, and expanded community outreach, networking, and public participation after exposure to infrastructure. Stakeholders adapt to existing infrastructure separately from adapting strategies to respond to new wind farms. Overall, a mutual relationship emerges wherein landscape changes from wind farms respond to policies and stakeholder activities, while policies and stakeholder groups adapt to the physical realities of landscape change.     

Cultural landscapes and behavioral transformations: An agent-based model for the simulation and discussion of alternative landscape futures in East Lesvos,Greece

Agricultural intensification and abandonment have been identified as two of the more prominent and polarizing drivers of landscape change in Europe. These transitions may induce deterioration in landscape functioning and character, particularly in cultural landscapes demonstrative of evolving human-environment dynamics that have sustained environmental benefits through time. Cultural and behavioral motives are important root influences to such landscape transitions, yet efforts to address landscape degradation are often hampered by a failure to account for the heterogeneous decision-making nature of its agents of change and the inherent complexity of socio-ecological systems. Novel techniques are required to further disentangle responses to multi-level drivers and discuss alternative landscape development trajectories. Agent-based models constructed by means of participatory approaches present increasingly applied tools in this context. This study sought to capture and model the future perspectives emerging from presently occurring farming discourses in the region of Gera (Lesvos, Greece), characterized by persistent abandonment of its traditionally managed olive plantations. We constructed an agent-based model iteratively in collaboration with the local farming community and experts in landscape research. Empirical findings informed the model through the construction of a farmer typology, revealing a heavy reliance of the farming community upon sectorial profitability, prevalent cultural farming motives and emerging landscape initiatives. The model examined the de-coupled role of agricultural profitability and landscapes initiatives in shaping the behavior of land managers, mapping alternative landscape futures over a period of 25 years. Model results illustrate both increased profitability and action by landscape initiatives are required to reverse abandonment trends within the simulated time frame. The hypothesized ability of landscape initiatives to maintain and promote a cultural drive amongst adhering farmers is crucial for securing behavioral transformations towards professionalism. This study confirmed agent-based modelling to be intuitively received by stakeholders who significantly contributed to model structure refinement and the rejection of a status quo scenario.     

人工干扰下的小流域土地利用景观格局变化研究——以信丰县崇墩沟小流域为例

以南方红壤丘陵区典型的生态环境脆弱区信丰县崇墩沟小流域为例,运用景观生态学理论,选取景观稳定度及景观异质性等景观格局指数对研究区近7a的土地利用景观变化进行综合分析。结果表明:研究区在生物措施治理等人工干扰下,2003~2010年形成了以林地为主的农林景观格局,景观结构呈异质性演变趋势,土地利用景观格局由受控于少数几个景观类型的影响正在向主导景观类型林地演变,各景观类型分布趋于集中,呈聚集型分布格局,生态环境逐步改善;生物措施等人工干扰是研究区土地利用景观格局演变的主要因素。     

Perception and use of landscape concepts in the procedure of Environmental Impact Assessment: Case study—Switzerland and Romania

The European Landscape Convention (ELC) defines landscape as “an area, as perceived by people, whose character is the result of the action and interaction of natural and/or human factors”. Because all aspects linked to landscape are evaluated during the Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) procedure, we assessed the Swiss and Romanian experts’ perception and EIA reports regarding the landscape concept. Therefore, we analysed Swiss and Romanian experts’ perception of landscape, we evaluated concepts and methods used in environmental impact reports to assess landscape characteristics and functions, and how the ELC's aim and objectives are reflected by the EIA reports.The Canonical Correspondence Analysis performed to evaluate the experts’ perception of landscape integration in the EIA procedure showed a significant relationship among pattern of answers and experts’ professional background. Moreover, there is a significant difference between Swiss and Romanian expert's perception. Longer experience in the field and a higher level of education indicates higher awareness of landscape characteristics and properties, which demonstrates that alongside with the initial training, there is a need for developing a coherent long-life learning systems having landscape analysis as a focus.The ELC is familiar to nearly 86% of the Romanian Environmental Impact Assessment actors and nearly 29% of the Swiss experts. By contrast, most of the Romanian EIA reports analysed do not employ many concepts of the ELC, while most of the Swiss environmental reports incorporate objectives of landscape protection consistent with the Convention.Our study relies on the comparative investigation of representative case studies of Environmental Impact Assessment reports for industry, local infrastructures, tourism facilities, and wind farm projects, as well on tracking how the European Landscape Convention is reflected by the EIA reports. We found that EIA reports from both countries evaluate the visual landscape, thus, achieving subjective assessment of landscape aesthetics without focusing on social and ecological sub-systems. Quantitative elements of landscape analysis are mostly absent and it is challenging to evaluate whether environmental assessments are consistent among European Landscape Convention countries.To overcome the abstract way of evaluation of project's impact on landscape through EIA procedure, an improved landscape analysis procedure is needed and we propose developing technical guidelines, under the European Landscape Convention umbrella, in order to enhance landscape management.     

A century of change in coastal sedimentary landscapes in the Canary Islands (Spain) — Change,processes, and driving forces

A global understanding of landscape dynamics, through local case studies, is a prime topic in land change science. Consequently, this approach should be urgently applied to changing and heavily transformed environments, such as coastal areas. The aim of this work is to study landscape changes, comparatively, by focusing on three coastal sedimentary landscapes in the Canary Islands (Spain). We examine changes in main land cover types and identify their driving forces, actors and institutions, analyze their inter-relationships, and match each case to a case-specific development model. The three landscapes reveal very different change processes with regard to population density, land cover, and major land change processes (i.e., resource extraction, urbanization, tourism, and nature protection). We found that socioeconomic, political, and natural/spatial driving force types are of highest importance, while the local level is dominant in all three cases. The findings of this study can be used to interpret other similar landscapes worldwide. Driving-force and organizational-level patterns may be expressed in a synthesized manner as we demonstrate in this paper.     

Evaluating municipal landscape plans and their influence on selected aspects of landscape development – An empirical study from Germany

In this paper we examine the question of whether and how municipal landscape plans exert a positive influence on and/or correlate with selected aspects of the landscape. To this end, a representative sample of municipal landscape plans in Germany and a statistical-quantitative evaluation approach are used to uncover correlations between planning and landscape development. As a result, we can show that municipalities which draw up a landscape plan have a higher proportion of natural areas and a lower hemeroby index, i.e. a lower level of human influence. The model also reveals a significant relationship between the quality of the landscape plan as well as its duration of impact and the density of landscape structural elements. It is also determined that municipal landscape plans help protect grassland areas. The indicator-based method provides impulses for the international discussion on the evaluation of plans.     

Assessment of landscape regeneration of a Natura 2000 site hosting greenhouse farming by using a dashboard of indicators. A case in Sicily through the territorial implementation of a "pilot project" at farm level

Rural landscapes within Natura 2000 network are particularly sensitive to any anthropic action which could cause the compromise of protected habitats. Agriculture, if conducted with unsustainable techniques, could cause loss of biodiversity and landscape quality. The aim of this study is to propose a dashboard of indicators to assess the landscape and environmental benefits achievable by a landscape transformation based on a sustainable management of the agriculture activity in an area characterized by the presence of intensive greenhouse farming. The method was applied in the southern coast of Sicily, where there is the largest SCI (Site of Community Importance) and SPA (Special Protection Area) site of the Region. Here, the dune system was seamlessly occupied by greenhouses, so endangering habitats that guarantee the survival of endemic species, such as the Leopoldia gussonei. The main dimensional, visual and agro-environmental indicators for assessing the landscape and environmental pressure were identified and valued both in the actual state and after the hypothesized conversion. The results show that the proposed intervention would allow a meaningful landscape improvement combined with a considerable reduction of the pollution of the area.     

基于3S的河北省土地利用/覆被变化及景观格局分析

对河北省土地利用/覆被变化的动态变化特征、空间分布特征和景观格局变化进行研究,结果表明:河北省土地覆被类型以耕地和林地为主,并具有明显的地域差异和垂直空间分布差异;土地利用程度综合指数逐年提高,2000~2005年土地利用程度变化量和变化率均低于1987~2000年;2000~2005年时段综合土地利用动态度是1987~2000年时段的1.19倍;土地利用/覆被变化的景观多样性指数逐渐增加,均匀度指数呈增加趋势,优势度指数总体数值较大,并呈减少趋势。