Improving volunteer retention efforts in public library systems: how communication and inclusion impact female and male volunteers differently

Although volunteer levels are near all‐time highs, volunteer coordinators are increasingly spending more time on retention efforts. The purpose of this study is to measure the impact of organizational communication and inclusive behaviors on volunteers' intention to continue volunteering. Through a survey of 472 volunteers in three library systems, research revealed that two organizational communication theories can improve the effectiveness of volunteer coordinator efforts. Specifically, structural equation modeling revealed that social group inclusion and overall participation in organizational events were the strongest predictors of female volunteers' future intentions to volunteer whereas event participation, being included in the organization's information network, and participating in decision making were the strongest predictors for male volunteers. Relationship indicators successfully predicted which volunteers were most likely to continue volunteering. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Who volunteers? Constructing a hybrid theory

This paper describes three major theoretical perspectives in research on volunteering: social theories that stress the importance of context, roles, and integration; individual characteristic theories that emphasize values, traits, and motivations; and resource theories that focus on skills and free time. It unites research from multiple disciplines into a single hybrid model, performs a preliminary test of the model on a nationally representative US dataset, and concludes with recommendations for scholars and practitioners. Using the 1995 Midlife in the US dataset, we operationalized concepts from each theoretical category and found that variables measuring each perspective played a substantial and independent role in predicting volunteering. Our hybrid model, which includes significant variables from each theory, offers some directions for recruitment and retention by showing how social roles and networks can constrain or encourage volunteering at different stages of the life course. As social roles and networks are both highly predictive and easily observed, volunteer managers can use them to recruit and retain volunteers. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The role of disgust sensitivity in volunteer recruitment and retention

In the United States, many volunteers contribute unpaid labor to nonprofit organizations. This labor includes direct volunteer service (working in close physical proximity to individuals who receive assistance, such as homeless and elderly individuals) and indirect volunteer service (administrative or fundraising tasks that do not require direct engagement with the target population). This paper extends the marketing theory of product contagion, in which proximity to disgust‐inducing stimuli devalues consumer products, to preferences for direct versus indirect volunteer activities. A study conducted among U.S.‐based adults found that higher sensitivity to disgust led to a greater preference for indirect volunteer service opportunities over direct volunteer opportunities. This result—which did not differ by gender—was mediated by the likelihood that indirect (vs. direct) volunteering was perceived as representative of volunteer work. Disgust sensitivity did not predict the total amount of volunteer work performed. Implications for recruitment and retention of volunteers are discussed.     

Charity shop volunteers: a case for ‘tender loving care’

The main purpose of this paper, which features all the shop volunteers in the town of Ruislip (and some in a neighbouring town), is to build a picture of the volunteer workforce and to note some distinguishing features about volunteer groupings that have been identified. It discusses some of the management challenges facing charities in marshalling their volunteers and notes the very important part the local shop manager plays in that process. Finally it discusses some of the consequences to volunteering of the migration to ‘professionalism’. It is suggested that charities, by understanding what is happening to volunteering in the retail sector, will extract maximum contribution from the efforts of their volunteers, present and future. A competitive edge may be found by some if they employ a humanistic approach to the management of volunteers. Copyright © 1999 Henry Stewart Publications     

Transitioning ageing workers from paid to unpaid work in non‐profits

Resource constraints and retention issues associated with an ageing workforce have challenged non‐profit institutions. Human resource management professionals in these organisations can stem the loss of organisational learning by developing strong social exchanges that encourage employees to pursue post‐retirement volunteering. This paper developed a conceptual model that described how ageing workers may evaluate and connect the quality of the relationships they build at work through social exchanges to their fit with the organisation, workgroup and vocation. Alignment of fit may create an intention to volunteer upon retirement, although we argue that this will be strengthened if the organisation is perceived to value volunteering activities. This value is also shaped through social exchange and might include attitudes toward the extra‐role activities of both employees and volunteers in the current organisation.     

The volunteer matrix: positioning of volunteer organizations

• In the fierce competition that volunteer involving organizations face nowadays over people's willingness to donate their time, marketing strategies should be used. In order to enhance the organization's recruitability (ability to recruit suitable volunteers), it is important for volunteer organizations to understand what the positioning of the organization is and the type of volunteering that is being offered. In the current article we suggest using a marketing tool to increase the ability to recruit volunteers: positioning and perceptual mapping. Our perceptual mapping – the volunteer matrix is based on two dimensions: price (different costs attached to the volunteer experience) and quality (the overall quality of the volunteering experience). Thus, the matrix includes four different positions, and we demonstrate the manners in which different volunteer organizations or roles are positioned in each. Discussed are also the possible implementations of the matrix in order to recruit suitable volunteers and retain them.

Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Does it Pay to Work for Free? Negative Selection and the Wage Returns to Volunteer Experience

This paper offers the first instrumental variables estimates of the wage returns to volunteer experience. The returns are substantial and differ considerably by gender. The results imply that the unequal valuation of volunteer experience by gender is more important in explaining the gender earnings gap than is the unequal valuation of part‐time paid work experience. The results also indicate negative selection into unpaid work. In a simple model of optimal volunteering, negative selection implies that a lower cost of volunteering would produce both an expanded and higher‐skilled pool of volunteers, and greater societal benefits from volunteer work.     

Fast-tracking expatriate development: the unique learning environments of international volunteer placements

International volunteering has traditionally been viewed as a pursuit that, while admirable, provided little benefit for the volunteer beyond altruistic satisfaction. Yet several recent studies suggest that an international volunteer placement can fast-track the development of valuable global skills and capabilities. To date, no research has offered a systematic explanation for this. This article presents a framework that outlines the unique mechanisms of international volunteer placements that contribute to them being fertile learning environments for expatriates. In doing so, it draws on evidence from a longitudinal study of the learning experiences of a sample of international volunteers from Australia and New Zealand.     

Understanding the volunteer market: the what,where, who and why of volunteering

Although the work of the voluntary sector is growing, the number of people volunteering is not increasing at a comparable rate. This paper argues that the key to an organisation's success in recruiting and retaining its volunteers is to have an understanding of its target group. As a means to developing this understanding the paper reviews the prior research on volunteering and outlines the current situation in the voluntary sector with regard to the donation of time. The review shows that those who volunteer are an extremely diverse group, active in a wide variety of contexts. This makes the definition of a volunteer a more complex task than one would expect. It also demonstrates that individuals and organisations may volunteer for reasons other than purely altruistic motives. Finally, the paper identifies gaps in this area of research and presents topics for further research. Copyright © 2002 Henry Stewart Publications     

Making Government Volunteering Policies More Effective

Faced with declining civic trust on the one hand and increasing fiscal stringency on the other, many governments have issued policies to encourage volunteering, or to mandate departments and agencies to recruit and involve volunteers in their work. Little research has been undertaken to follow up on these initiatives. This article reports the results of a study comparing two health and social service trusts in Northern lreland with respect to their response to governmental policies to incorporate volunteers into the provision of health and social service care. The study examines the priority accorded by the trusts to the implementation of these policies; the support they give to volunteer administration and management and the missing links in this process.

A central theme of the study is the role played by the volunteer co-ordinator in promoting and sustaining a volunteer programme in the trust. The article first examines the policy context for volunteering in Northern lreland and indicates how policy was implemented in the health and social service trusts. The article then turns to the research design and methodology used in the study. Following a presentation of the findings, the article concludes with a discussion of the findings and their Implications for research and practice in the implementation of statutory volunteer policy.     

The functions and norms that drive university student volunteering

• Young adult volunteers are vital to the current and future operations of nonprofit organizations yet many countries report low and declining volunteer participation by this group. Moreover, university students are a particularly under‐utilized and under‐researched segment of potential young adult volunteers. As such, the current study examines the functions and norms that drive university students to volunteer. A survey of 282 students indicates that the Volunteer Functions Inventory (VFI) does not adequately explain the volunteering of today's university students. For instance, t‐tests reveal that the importance of the VFI functions among current students differs significantly to the importance of the functions among the previous generation of students. Also, factor analysis shows that the structure of the VFI model is unstable for the current sample while multiple regression reveals that the VFI explains only 11% of university student volunteering. In contrast, χ²‐tests indicate that volunteering by university students is dependent on the observed volunteering of primary reference group members (i.e., parents, siblings, close friends). The results suggest that nonprofit organizations may need to revise their recruitment strategies for today's university students: rather than appealing to the functional benefits of volunteering, positioning volunteering as the ‘normal’ thing to do may be more successful. Further research is needed to develop a richer understanding of reference group influences on the volunteering behavior of today's young adults.

Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A process model of volunteer motivation

Traditional HR functions of recruitment, selection, training/development, and retention must be adapted when managing a volunteer workforce. While much research has focused on what motivates people to volunteer, very little has focused on the process of volunteer motivation. In this paper, we move beyond the traditional content-based approaches to explain how people decide whether to volunteer, how much effort to expend, and then whether to continue volunteering over time. Our model, based on image theory, provides new insights into volunteer decision making and behavior.     

Volunteering time decisions: a multi‐factor experimental study

Non‐profit organizations often seek volunteers to help staff a fundraising event. In the present research, an experimental study assessed volunteering time decisions for a fundraising event following manipulations of opportunity cost valence, opportunity cost avoidability and question order involving donating time and donating money. Opportunity costs represent foregone alternatives sacrificed (e.g. working) when engaging in an activity (e.g. volunteering), with valence of the opportunity cost indicating the appeal (positive or negative) of the foregone alternative and avoidability of the opportunity cost suggesting how easy it would be to forgo the alternative. Prospective donors are often asked to consider both volunteering time and contributing money, and these two questions posed to individuals can be varied in terms of order. The results of the experiment revealed that individuals intended to volunteer the most time when an opportunity cost was negative and avoidable. The lowest time donation intentions occurred when an opportunity cost was positive and less avoidable with individuals also being asked about donating money prior to being asked to donate time. The results highlighted the importance to non‐profit firms of considering opportunity costs potential volunteers face and suggested care in structuring the order of questions involving time and money posed to those individuals. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The people behind the scenes: Episodic volunteering at fundraising events

Nonprofit organizations (NPOs) have become increasingly dependent on episodic volunteers (EVs), those that would help carry out an event with little training and expectation to commit to future events. Despite its importance to the survival of NPOs, the use of EVs with respect to fundraising has received little research focus. Furthermore, none of the existing studies identified examined how fundraising EVs differ from other EVs. This study seeks to contribute to our understanding of fundraising EVs using a global perspective. Data were generated using surveys distributed in seven countries, tallying more than 4,000 respondents. Variables included demographic characteristics, previous donation and volunteer history, motives, mode of volunteering, and overall experience. The data were analyzed by applying between-group (logistic regression on participation) and within-group analysis (ordered logistic regression on willingness to participate in the future). Data were further analyzed by examining differences by country. We found that country, gender, religion, income, employment, history of donations, mode of volunteering, and several motives, both intrinsic and extrinsic, were significant in the logistic regression analysis of participation in fundraising episodic volunteering. The ordered logistic analysis unexpectedly found that the only predictors to foster a willingness to engage again were the responsiveness of the event team and a desire to fulfill spiritual satisfaction. In recruiting and selecting EVs for fundraising events, NPOs should consider previous or current donors and those with regular volunteering experience and they should market volunteer opportunities towards those in search of spiritual fulfillment and meaning. Moreover, NPOs should prioritize quick and clear communication with fundraising EVs in order to foster a willingness to volunteer again. Lastly, NPOs should regularly assess for country-specific factors and contexts that may affect episodic volunteering in fundraising events. Our paper illustrates who fundraising EVs are, their motives, how they choose to volunteer, and what contributes to their willingness to volunteer again. Given the limited research on fundraising EVs, this study serves to help lay the foundation of research for this unique subgroup. Our aim was to not only address the dearth of literature but serve as a springboard for future research on fundraising EVs.     

Converting volunteers to donors: Fundraising strategies for professional associations

The use of fundraising strategies in professional associations is on the rise as member donations have become an increasingly important revenue stream for the associations. This study aims to understand why member volunteers are potential donors to professional associations and to examine whether association solicitation is effective in increasing member volunteer donations. A moderated mediation model was tested with data that consisted of 3,224 professional association members. The results suggest that member satisfaction significantly mediates the relationship between member volunteering and financial giving, and solicitation only makes a difference to member volunteers who are satisfied with their membership. This study concludes that targeting satisfied member volunteers for donations could yield financial benefits to professional associations.     

Retaining volunteers for the cause: Hope and pride associated with cause-related charity events in cancer control

Special charity events are an important source of revenue for non-profit organisations in cancer control yet volunteering is declining and turnover is high. Experiences at cause-related events may influence retention, particularly emotions connected to the cause and ceremonies which honour cancer survivors and remember loved ones. We explore the degree to which emotions associated with cause-related volunteering and collective action in the literature are felt in response to Relay For Life and what emotions predict three indicators of retention: intention to return for future events, satisfaction with volunteering, and organisational commitment. Volunteers (n = 410) completed a cross-sectional survey at Relay For Life events in Queensland, Australia. Multiple regression analyses examined whether emotions associated with events predicted each indicator of retention, adjusting for number of years spent volunteering for events. Sixty-two percent reported an intention to return the following year. The most commonly reported event-related emotions were hope, pride, and empathy (62–69%). Intention to return, satisfaction, and commitment were each significantly predicted by hope and pride. The findings suggest special charity events in cancer control could retain volunteers by fostering pride and hope (e.g., for a cancer free future); however, future prospective research which examines the mechanisms of these relationships is warranted.     

Employer‐supported volunteering benefits: Gift exchange among employers,employees, and volunteer organizations

Using gift exchange theory to explain the growing trend of employers offering employer‐supported volunteering (ESV) benefits, this article discusses the creation of exchange relationships between the employer and employee and between the volunteer organization and employee. Hypotheses derived from the employee's perspective are tested with a nationally representative sample of volunteers (n=3,658). Findings suggest that ESV benefits are positively related to hours volunteered by the employee. Volunteer hours predict employee perceptions of skill acquisition, and such perceptions are positively related to perceptions of job success and employer recognition. We discuss the implications of these findings for business, employees, and volunteer organizations, with an emphasis on human resource management policy and practice. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Working with and recruiting volunteers as part of a fundraising strategy

This paper was first written for the Henry Stewart Conference ‘Maximising and Developing Regional and Local Fundraising’ on 16th April, 1991. The paper provides an overview of two key areas: recruitment of volunteers, and a more general element often forgotten in the volunteer process, yet absolutely critical, motivation and retention through recognition. This is illustrated through the case study of RNIB regional fundraising.     

The face and voice of volunteering: a suitable case for branding?

Volunteers make a substantial contribution to UK society but the level of volunteering has peaked and may, in part, be due to the poor ‘image’ of volunteering. Through qualitative research, this study explores the need to re-shape perceptions of volunteering and the extent to which this may be achieved through branding. Key findings suggest that although there is much consistency in perceptions about generic volunteering, perceptions of the different strands of volunteering, such as governance and campaigning, are different and may require individual development as sub-brands. It is argued that Volunteering England is best placed to lead a brand development programme, supported by managers of national and local bodies as well as volunteers to create a new visual identity and, importantly, key messages that will resonate with current and potential volunteers across different areas of activity. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Pathways through trusteeship: Responding to the trustee recruitment crisis

Getting on Board 2017 suggests that the recruitment of trustees to the Board of Trustees (henceforth volunteer trustees) by charities in the United Kingdom is in a state of crisis. This report and a range of other stakeholders offer advice and guidance about recruitment, but attention to what motivates individuals to become trustees is lacking. Drawing upon the Pathways Through Participation framework , we argue that an important part of addressing the crisis in trustee recruitment is to consider the motivations of volunteer trustees in tandem with their resources and triggers for volunteering. We draw upon a study of 14 volunteer trustees of learning disability charities to explore how a critical understanding of volunteer trusteeship as a pathway through participation provides a full and rounded picture of trustee recruitment. Building on other research on volunteer recruitment and markets, we argue that recruitment can be improved when charities better understand what motivates their volunteer trustees. We recommend that charities consider trusteeship as a pathway through participation as part of their recruitment practices.