Does personal freedom influence outbound tourism?

The purpose of this study is to examine the impact of personal freedom in a country on outbound tourism after controlling for other relevant outbound tourism determinants. Using a panel of 80 countries over a period of 13 years (1999–2011) and applying panel fixed-effects and generalized method of moments (GMM) techniques, our results reveal that a lower level of personal freedom in a country increases outbound tourism. These results are more robust for developing countries.     

Evidence of a low-carbon tourism paradigm?

The global tourism industry has benefited from exceptional growth; however, a number of challenges have the potential to seriously undermine the industry's future aspirations. This research uses social representation theory to understand how the social group of tourism experts makes sense of the phenomena of “tourism growth”, “low-carbon tourism”, “peak oil” and “risks for tourism”, and whether representations are indicative of different underlying paradigms. A total of 101 experts from various tourism professions and key demographics were interviewed using the free associations method. The findings reveal distinct representations of the four phenomena, but also significant linkages between them, in particular in relation to the global economy, transportation, energy supply and sustainability. Further, whilst experts appear grounded in the Dominant Social Paradigm of consumerism and neoliberal capitalism, there is evidence of alternative views that question some of the fundamental assumptions of the growth paradigm. In particular, when asked about low-carbon tourism and peak oil, experts advanced associations that indicated an Alternative Paradigm. A broader paradigm shift originating from within tourism, however, alone is unlikely.     

Understanding the past,anticipating the future – a critical assessment of China outbound tourism research

This paper presents a critical assessment of the current state of China outbound tourism research. It draws upon an extensive review of peer-reviewed literature on China outbound tourism published between 2003 and 2015. In seeking an in-depth understanding of the current literature and its implications, the researchers propose five potential directions for future investigation. These include a call for researchers to embrace alternative research techniques that will contribute to theory building, as well as for an alignment of research activity that provides insights into both the evolution and the transformation of China outbound tourism.     

Drivers and consequences of sustainability committee existence? Evidence from the hospitality and tourism industry

This study's objective is twofold: (1) to investigate whether board characteristics predict the existence of a sustainability committee, and (2) to examine whether the establishment of sustainability committees stimulates sustainability reporting, external assurance, and the adoption of the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) framework in hospitality and tourism (H&T) firms. For this purpose, the data was derived from the Thomson Reuters Eikon database for publicly traded H&T firms from 2013 to 2018. The results indicate that while board size is a significant predictor of sustainability committee establishment, female and independent directors are not. Furthermore, the H&T firms with a sustainability committee are more likely to issue a sustainability report, to get an independent assurance statement on sustainability reporting, and to follow GRI guidelines in configuring sustainability report content and structure. Overall, the results suggest important implications to help H&T firms achieve sustainable goals and to design their boards accordingly.     

Is sustainable tourism an obstacle to the economic performance of the tourism industry? Evidence from an international empirical study

Sustainability has become an important strategic objective for tourism destinations worldwide. All analytical tourism competitiveness models make direct or indirect positive references to sustainability. It is accepted that sustainable tourism can reduce resource costs and help create market differentiation. Nevertheless, it has traditionally been considered that, short term, sustainability measures can reduce profitability and compromise competitiveness. Debates on the progress, implications, and practicality of sustainable tourism remain open. The relationship between economic sustainability, and environmental and sociocultural sustainability, is a central but largely unresearched area for tourism scholars, especially at the macro level. This study explores that difficult but essential area, using the World Economic Forum's empirical evidence from 128 countries, backed by the economic data search tool of the World Travel & Tourism Council. It demonstrates that progress in tourism sustainability does not affect a country's main economic tourism indicators in the short term, and does not constrain profitability and competitiveness. It also finds that sustainable tourism is not a luxury that only rich countries can afford, nor should it prevent development and perpetuate poverty in developing countries. An effective marketing and communication program about sustainable tourism is, however, found to be essential for economic success.     

Can community-based tourism contribute to sustainable development? Evidence from residents’ perceptions of the sustainability

In this paper, the research gaps in sustainable tourism development were addressed by examining residents' perceptions of the sustainability of community-based tourism based on tourism area life cycle theory. The survey questionnaire was distributed to the residents of six Taiwanese communities, and it was designed to determine the residents' perceptions of the economic, socio-cultural, environmental, and life satisfaction sustainability of tourism. In total, 849 usable questionnaires were collected. The analytical results further elucidated the sustainability of nature-based tourism and suggested that the economic, socio-cultural, and environmental sustainability varied significantly in the consolidation, development, and involvement stages of community-based tourism development. The four dimensions of sustainability were evaluated according to the pre- and post-development perceptions of tourism sustainability, and significantly different results were obtained. The study concludes that the residents’ perceptions differed across the developmental stages; thus, managers should consider the development opportunities and adopt appropriate strategies across different development stages.     

How stable is the tourism-led growth hypothesis in Malaysia? Evidence from disaggregated tourism markets

We contribute to the tourism-growth literature by applying the newly developed combined cointegration test and the recursive Granger causality test to re-assess the stability of the tourism-led growth hypothesis in Malaysia with respect to 12 different tourism markets. The cointegration test results suggest that economic growth of Malaysia is cointegrated with all the 12 selected tourism markets. However, the recursive Granger causality test shows that the tourism-led growth hypothesis in Malaysia is valid and stable with respect to tourist arrivals from only 8 out of the 12 tourism markets. Almost all of them are from developed countries. Hence, not all international visitor arrivals could effectively drive the growth of the Malaysian economy. In light of this, tourism marketing policies should focus more on those tourism markets that could significantly stimulate economic growth. However, there should not be total neglect of others as they potentially contribute to the economies of scale.     

To what extend economic uncertainty effects tourism investments? Evidence from OECD and non-OECD economies

This paper aims to examine the role of economic policy uncertainty (EPU) on tourism investments across the samples of OECD, non-OECD, high-income, upper-middle-income, and low-income economies. We account for cross-sectional dependence and endogeneity and also incorporate economic development, financial development, and trade openness indicators in the analyses. By using annual data between 1996 and 2016 and a total of 101 countries, we provide robust estimates on the determinants of tourism investments. The findings from the Common Correlated Effects Mean Group (CCEMG) and the Group Mean approaches show that the EPU has a significant negative impact on tourism investments across the panels. Moreover, other estimates suggest that economic development, financial development, and trade positively contribute to tourism investments.     

Does eco certification sell tourism services? Evidence from a quasi-experimental observation study in Iceland

Eco labelling of tourism services has been studied extensively in the past. Yet, there is no agreement on two key points: (1) whether or not eco certification increases tourist demand for a product among the general tourist population, and (2) whether or not there is a specific market segment whose purchase decisions are influenced by eco labels. Lack of agreement is partially due to the wide variety of different research approaches used. Most studies have in common, however, that they rely solely on tourist self reports of either behavioural intentions or past behaviour. The present study re-investigates these two questions using a quasi-experimental design based on actual observed behaviour and objective knowledge testing. Results indicate that (1) eco labelling does not have a big impact on general tourist demand, but (2) a niche market exists which is influenced by eco labelling when choosing among alternative tourist providers. The research design used in the present study offers a useful alternative for investigations of tourist purchase decisions. It leads to more reliable results because it is based on the observation of actual displayed behaviour, thus avoiding a range of answer biases. Other eco-certified products now need research on similar lines.     

Four kinds of tourism?

To relate tourism to leisure theory, this paper first offers a potential conceptual framework to assist in placing leisure in the context of other human behavior. This is done by considering dimensions of both subjective experience and structural environment. The field structured by these two dimensions is then reviewed by examining four more or less extreme positions, although emphasizing that reality will rarely conform to an extreme. The two dimensional field of human behavior is, like all conceptual models, an attempt to understand the immense complexity of reality. Turning to tourism, this framework demonstrates that just as recreation often fails to result in leisure, so the tourism industry may well detract from the positive aspects of the tourism experience, and at the worst, may produce alienation.     

From frozen continent to tourism hotspot? Five decades of Antarctic tourism development and management,and a glimpse into the future

Representing the main commercial activity on the Antarctic continent, Antarctic tourism is increasingly thrust into the limelight as both benefactor and detractor to the environmental and political integrity of Antarctica. In view of its unprecedented growth, questions arise about the limitations of future tourism development in Antarctica. This paper assesses Antarctic tourism development over the last five decades and evaluates its current and future status from the viewpoints of Antarctic tourism stakeholders. This assessment is informed by interviews with Antarctic tourism stakeholders and a Delphi study undertaken in 2007. The authors found that Antarctic tourism stakeholders are concerned about the increasing scale and diversification of Antarctic tourism and generally subscribe to a conservation imperative when expressing their hopes for the future use of Antarctica and the development of Antarctic tourism. In conclusion, the rapid development of Antarctic tourism requires structural, institutional and legislative changes if Antarctic tourism regulation is to remain successful.     

Why volunteer teaching tourism? Empirical evidence from China

Volunteer teaching tourism, as a particular type of volunteer tourism supported by China government, has become an effective supplement to and acceleration for education development in the regions of China where education resources are limited. The motivation and experience of volunteers have a direct impact on the healthy and sustainable development of volunteer teaching tourism. This study therefore aims to identify motivation of Chinese youth participating in volunteer teaching tourism in China, and the relationships between motivation, satisfaction, and behavioral intention are further examined. Empirical results show that in addition to the six motives advanced by Clary et al. (1998), two unique motives are further identified: love of children and desire to travel. Among these eight motives, three have significant effects on post-trip satisfaction, and post-trip satisfaction further influences behavioral intention. The implications benefit both organizational and governmental bodies who seek to develop both national and international volunteer teaching tourism.     

The effect of China's open-door tourism policy on Taiwan: Promoting or suppressing tourism from other countries to Taiwan?

This study employs an extended gravity model to analyse the complementarity or competitiveness relationship of the number of inbound tourists and corresponding tourism revenue between China and 19 other nations under the implementation of China's Open-door Tourism Policy to Taiwan in 2008. A simulation for 2018–2021 demonstrates the sustained impact of this policy. The results show that the number of tourists to Taiwan from China reached its peak in 2015 at 41% and will decrease to 9% by 2021. The corresponding tourism revenue will decrease from 49% to 11% over the same period. The results also show that if the number of tourists from China remains above 836,772, the number of tourists from Japan, Hong Kong, Australasia, North America, and Europe will still increase. However, the number of tourists from South Korea and South and Southeast Asia will increase continuously regardless of tourists from China, even far below 836,772.     

Addressing zero-hunger through tourism? Food security outcomes from two tourism destinations in rural Ethiopia

Underpinned by sustainable livelihood thinking, this study investigated community stakeholders' perspectives on the impacts of tourism on food security in two rural tourism destinations: Debarq and Meket in Ethiopia. Semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions were conducted with a range of stakeholders to solicit their perspectives, revealing the complexity of the tourism and food security relationship. Although tourism had brought about some small changes to food availability, access and utilisation, there were limitations around its contribution to food stability. This was primarily due to the nature of tourism employment and lack of linkages between tourism and local agriculture. Tourism was not strong enough nor properly integrated with existing livelihoods to support the local communities' food security, generally only offering a minor contribution. This research highlights the challenges for tourism to contribute to local communities' food security, offering policy-relevant guidance for addressing the food security challenges of tourism destinations.     

Nurturing nostalgia?: A response from rural tourism stakeholders

The desire to relive bygone days stimulates nostalgia-seekers to travel to rural settings that have a kind of vintage charm. However, there is no evidence that stakeholders actually acknowledge the beneficial outcomes of nostalgia. This exploratory study sought to identify whether rural tourism stakeholders deliberately nurture visitor nostalgia with the intention of harvesting its positive outcomes. The findings suggest that the notion is credited as constructive, both at a personal and social level, but stakeholders do not seem to be fully cognizant of its potentiality. The study presents a diagrammatic tool that identifies those elements that need to be targeted so that nostalgia is triggered, strengthened and comforted.     

The young generations’ conceptualisation of cultural tourism: colonial heritage attractions in South Korea

This study investigates how the younger generation conceptualise cultural tourism attractions associated with modern history in contemporary South Korea. Particular attention in this study is given to heritage attractions built in the Japanese colonising past. By analysing data obtained through a Multiple Sorting Procedure, this study identifies the underlying facets of heritage attractions the younger generation consider to be important when appreciating the heritage attractions. This study examines the socio-psychological properties and meanings that the heritage attractions communicate with respect to young Koreans’ sense of national identity. This study found that a range of constructs emerged in understanding heritage attractions. Social and political meanings embedded in the heritage attractions become a key determinant in appreciating heritage attractions with respect to a sense of national identity. These findings from South Korea suggest invaluable messages that can inform our understanding of, and planning regenerating negative-natured heritage attractions for tourism in contemporary society.     

Input‐output analysis and income distribution patterns of the tourism industry in South Korea

This study estimates the economic effects of the tourism industry in South Korea by using the Input‐Output Model in terms of output, income, employment, value added, indirect tax, and import The distribution of income is also examined in the tourism industry among various social classes using the Lorenz curve and the Gini coefficient The results show that the tourism industry performed better than most of other industries in terms of generating employment and tax revenues. The tourism industry also performs better in terms of minimizing leakage, but more poorly in terms of the linkage effect as compared to the majority of other industries. The Gini coefficient and the Lorenz curve show that the tourism industry performs moderately well in the distribution of income among household income classes as compared to the majority of other industries.     

Can tourism development induce deterioration of human capital?

Modern economic theory considers high-quality human capital the most valuable resource for robust economic growth. Since tourism in general does not require graduate employees, it could be argued that the development of tourism leads to the re-direction and even the deterioration of human capital. This hypothesis is tested in the case of Croatia, a small tourism-oriented Mediterranean country which has recently experienced exceptional growth in the tourism sector. The methodology of quasi-experimental research is applied in order to answer the question whether there is a significant difference in the number of students enrolled in professional or university studies between two groups of Croatian towns and municipalities, whereby one group having recently experienced a five-year period of intense tourism development.     

Residents’ attitudes toward future tourism development in terms of community well-being and attachment

This study explores residents’ attitudes toward future tourism development based on their community well-being (CWB) and community attachment. Focusing on the case of Gamcheon Culture Village in Busan, South Korea, which was developed during an urban regeneration project in 2009, an exploratory factor analysis was conducted. The main findings of this study are: (1) CWB is supported by five variables including income effects, social participation, safety service, infrastructure service, and environmental effect; (2) not only does CWB influence community attachment but attachment also effects residents’ attitudes; and (3) the most effective variable of CWB is income effect, and safety service for community attachment. These results can help to provide effective strategies to encourage residents to have positive attitudes about further tourism development in a community-based tourism destination.     

How to decouple tourism growth from carbon emissions? A case study of Chengdu,China

The world has witnessed unparalleled tourism growth over the past decades but accompanied by significant carbon emissions. Therefore, addressing the conundrum that is to decouple tourism growth from carbon emissions is of great significance for achieving sustainable tourism. In this paper, we extend the framework of decoupling analysis by introducing the logarithmic mean Divisia index (LMDI) decomposition model and an innovative accounting approach into the Tapio decoupling index model. The results show that (1) during the observed period, an overall weak decoupling of tourism growth from carbon emissions and different influential factors played different roles in the decoupling process and that (2) various decoupling determinants are statistically linked, and maintaining the synergistic relationship among different decoupling strategies in the tourism industry should be an important issue to governmental authorities.