Introduction tourism and re-created ethnicity

This collection of papers by sociologists and anthropologists focuses on the effect of tourism on the maintenance, transformation, and re-creation of ethnic boundaries. Tourism is seen as a special form of ethnic relations, particularly that form of tourism in which the cultural exoticism of the host population is the principal attraction for the tourist. This type of tourism leads to the formation of three main roles: tourist, touree, and middleman. The authors address different aspects of the marketing of ethnicity, such as the role of the state in the development of ethnic tourism; the modification and recreation of ethnic attributes and consciousness as the result of tourism; the transformation of art forms through the tourist trade; the role of the tourist agent; and the formation of ethnic stereotypes in tourist interactions.     

Tourism,handicrafts, and ethnic identity in Micronesia

This study examines the contemporary interactions in Micronesia between tourism, the production of handicrafts, and native perceptions of their culture and society in relation to foreigners. Special attention is given to the traditional distinctions made between mundane everyday handicrafts and highly valued products made by master artisans. Changes in the status of the latter products and their producers have occured as a result of varied colonial governments' policies affecting local economies. These political changes in the Twentieth Century with their attendant social and economic consequences as Micronesia approached political independence and a growing emphasis on tourism are examined with regard to the changing nature of native-foreign interactions and ethnic identity. The study suggests that the careful examination of the manner in which the local handicraft production system has changed can provide an important perspective on concurrent changes in ethnic identity.     

Come to Tana Toraja, “land of the heavenly kings”: Travel agents as brokers in ethnicity

This paper examines the role of tourist literature in the genesis of ethnic stereotypes. Considering the case of the Toraja of Sulawesi (Indonesia), it is suggested that travel agents are brokers in ethnicity, travel brochures being the tools of their trade. In the process of marketing images of exotic places and peoples, travel brochures draw upon a small set of indigenous ethnic markers, elaborating upon them to provide a mental grid through which the tourist filters his perceptions while abroad. These travel brochure images become indices of “authenticity” and the ethnic stereotypes generated by them become reified during the course of the tourist's visit abroad.     

The evolution of tourist arts

Tourist arts with ethnic content are at the nexus of changing tourism, ethnicity and art in the modern world. This paper explores the range of varieties of tourist arts, the dynamics of change between various types of artifacts, and the interaction between tourist arts and notions of ethnic self-perception. The analogy between language and art is pursued to illuminate the nature of the various communication codes embodied in tourist and ethnic arts. The paper concludes by stressing that tourist arts are not an end-point, but one possibility within the fluid relationships between material symbols, outsiders' demand, and the defense and reformulation of ethnicity. It also concludes that the evolution of ethnic awareness, combined with increased education and travel opportunities, is bringing a uniformity of attitudes towards tourism, material heritage, and museums among the middle classes of all nations. Thus minority ethnic symbols have become the manipulated “totems” of touristic identity.     

多民族地区旅游发展对当地族群关系的影响——以川滇泸沽湖地区为例

文章考察地处四川和云南之间泸沽湖地区旅游的发展及其对当地族群关系的影响.以观察、访谈和问卷的方式,研究小组收集当地人对旅游开发后泸沽湖地区族群关系互动的认识.研究发现,旅游的发展促进了该地区族群间的交流和融合,强化了当地居民(特别是摩梭人)的族群认同.但旅游开发并没有完全消除当地族群间存在的偏见和歧视,旅游发展带来的对传统文化的冲击、族群意识的加强、市场经济的竞争和贫富差距的增大,都影响当地族群关系的健康发展.文章建议,在多民族地区旅游开发中,推行参与式开发和包客性增长的策略.     

Tourism as ethnic preservation: The Cajuns of Louisiana

This paper addresses the impact of tourism on the preservation of ethnic identity with specific reference to the Louisiana Cajuns. Tourism has helped the Cajuns retain a separate identity by reinforcing the differences between Cajuns and outsiders. Cajuns are increasingly relinquishing their traditional culture in favor of standard U.S. values, but they retain a strong sense of identity and ethnic pride. A growing tourist industry was institutionalized at about the same time as the development of ethnic pride, and the two phenomena have profoundly influenced each other. Cajuns have become tourists in their own culture, joining outsiders in seeking and celebrating their brand of “local color” Cajun culture is now enacted on a “tourist stage” for the benefit of locals and their visitors. The tourist stage is an arena for the expression of ethnic differences, and it helps perpetuate an ethnic boundary that might otherwise disappear due to acculturation. Using the Cajuns as a case study, this paper proposes a model for the process of ethnic preservation through tourism.     

旅游对恩施土家族居民民族认同感的影响——基于个人生活史的视角

民族认同感是族群意识的基本组成部分。在旅游影响下,少数民族地区的民族认同呈现出多维度和不同方向的发展轨迹。文章通过对一位土家族青年女性个人生活史的记录,分析了在旅游发展进程中族群个体的民族认同感的演化过程,发现旅游对民族认同的影响在于:旅游引致的经济增长提高了民族文化的"势位";旅游产品创造了民族的集体记忆和文化景观;文化旅游的发展使民族认同的层次不断深化;民族旅游的盲目开发和过度开发将误导民族认同的方向。研究将为民族旅游地社会文化影响研究提供新的视角。     

The impact of ethnic tourism on hill tribes in Thailand

This research examines how the economic benefits of working in the ethnic tourism industry affect households in the local minority community, with a special focus on the division of labor and power dynamics of gender complementarity.Household income data gathered from the inner-city communities of the Akha tribal people in Thailand are the primary data used in a linear regression framework. The results show that ethnic tourism provides income to the local minority community. This income, however, is higher for young people and women than for older men, a disparity that disrupts the community’s traditional patriarchal social system. This study contributes to a nested model of multiple marginalization based on ethnicity, gender, and legal status. This case shall contribute to tourism planning and local policymaking in areas where ethnic tourism prospers.     

Ethnic tourism development:: Chinese Government Perspectives

Ethnic tourism is often used by governments to facilitate development and to preserve heritage. This paper examines the relationship between government and tourism in Xishuangbanna, China. Different levels of government play key but different roles in development through regulation of production, consumption, and investment. Their policies and decisions tend to create tensions when they promote tourism as a regional development strategy as a result of contradictions in regulations, ethnic rights, and relationships with entrepreneurs. It is concluded that more nuanced government policies could mitigate many of the issues. Future tourism planning should provide greater control of tourism by local ethnic people, cultural preservation, and public participation in decision-making processes.     

Site and situation strategy in tourism planning: A Mexican case study

Mexico has experienced all the effects, good and ill, of a large and expanding tourist trade. Tourism's negative consequences--economic dependency, crime, cultural erosion--have manifested themselves in tourist ghettos along Mexico's northern border, on the Mexican Riviera, and in the capital. This study is an assesment of contemporary Mexican tourism planning as it relates to these problems, and further as it seeks to make tourism a stimulus to economically depressed areas of the nation. A case study approach is utilized to identify the strategy of site and situation selection for the new programmed resort complex at Cancun on the Caribbean coast of the Yucatan peninsula. It is concluded that Cancun embodies, at least for Mexico, a radical departure in tourism development. The resort is situated to attract a large foreign clientele and to create the greatest possible positive economic and social impact on a resident Mexican population that has suffered chronic underdevelopment.     

民族村寨社区参与旅游开发的利益保障机制

民族村寨作为一类特殊社区,是我国乡村旅游开发的重要区域.社区参与是民族村寨旅游可持续发展的前提,而社区旅游利益的保障是社区有效参与的决定性因素.本文从旅游利益分配现状及其原因出发,基于开发的基本理念和目标提出了民族村寨社区参与旅游的利益保障机制.     

人类学与民族旅游:中国的实践

人类学因其理论与方法的独特性,逐渐被民族旅游研究所借鉴和吸纳,但在中国民族旅游的开发实践中却往往处于"非主流"的境地。人类学要想在中国民族旅游实践中享有更多的话语权,首要的任务就是用本学科的视角透视民族旅游,反思其进行中国实践时所面临的一些特定的问题,并积极推动和参与民族旅游开发的社会评估工作。其关键点在于:一是与政府建立良好的合作关系和协调机制;二是客观审视民族旅游对族群文化和族群关系的影响;三是科学考量旅游开发与当地社会环境的相互适应关系。     

Design of a curriculum for destination studies

Since vocational tourism courses started at Sydney Technical College in 1973, there have been problems in teaching about tourist destinations. Historical analysis of the subject's development indicates that problems stem largely from an absence of tourism theory. Throughout this subject's development, there have been four major influences: the vocational needs of tourism students; the definition of tourism systems; the adoption of a primary orientation towards the study of the causes of tourism; and developmental work on the nature of tourist attractions. The current curriculum is described and it is suggested that due to these influences it overcomes many former problems with its integrated inter-disciplinary approach employing tourism theory as the core discipline.     

Resident attitudes to tourism in North Wales

This article investigates residents' attitudes to tourism in North Wales, using factor analysis. The most important concerns are found to be a negative social impact, economic input, stereo-typing of visitors, purchasing of second homes by foreigners, cultural exchange, and the ecological impact of tourism. Lifelong residents and Welsh language speakers tend to be more sensitive to the impact of tourism on their culture and residents in high density tourist areas tend to appreciate the benefits and importance of tourism more than those who have less contact with tourists.     

The impact of ethnic tourism on gender roles: A comparison between the Bai and the Mosuo of Yunnan province,PRC

The purpose of this exploratory study is to examine how ethnic tourism is impacting host women in two destinations in Yunnan. To accomplish this, the paper compares the perceived impacts of ethnic tourism on women from a matriarchal and a patriarchal host community. The findings reveal that tourism income had a greater effect on women from a patriarchal community and that both groups of women reported several other non-economic impacts. Implications for future research are discussed.     

Coastal development in France: Tourism as a tool for regional development

The coastal development for tourism, of Languedoc-Roussillon in South West France represents one of the leading examples of State investment in tourism as a means of regional development. Examination is made of the administration, planning and implementation of the tourism project in Languedoc-Roussillon and its success is evaluated in terms of seasonality, its effect on income and employment in the region, the social value of the project and its contribution to the national balance of payments. On the basis of these evaluations it is argued that the tourism project has achieved only moderate success and tourism alone has not solved, and is unlikely to solve, the region's basic problems. The lessons of its use as a tool for regional development in Languedoc-Roussillon are of relevance to national governments everywhere.     

The effects of scale in tourism projects in developing countries

The paper by Rodenburg (Annals VII:2:177–196) on the effect of scale in tourism development in Bali raises important questions relating to tourism development in Third World countries. One fundamental question is whether large-scale development is inevitable in such countries, or whether there is persuasive evidence to support smaller and craft scale enterprises. This article undertakes a critical review of Rodenburg's analysis and concludes that large scale developments are likely to be inevitable because of external economies of scale and market structures in international tourism, but that the consequences of such developments can be foreseen and therefore mitigated by appropriate pre-project planning.     

Tourism's human conflicts: Cases from the Pacific

Farrell, Bryan H., “Tourism's Human Conflicts: Cases from the Pacific,” Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. VI, No. 2, April/June 1979, pp. 122–136. Conflicts within tourism in the Pacific area arise through the interaction of numerous forces, many of which are misunderstood or ignored. What goes on in the minds of visitors and hosts is as important as tourism's environmental manifestations. Some visitor behavior is motivated by insecurity. Host behavior often stems from hostility generated in the past. A tourist is a complex symbol, often maligned. Strategies used in tourism are the same as those associated with other development. A complex situation is further complicated by increasing neuroethnological information suggesting that levels of consciousness between outsiders and insiders may be as much physiological as cultural.     

Tourism and regional development a genetic approach

Research on tourism and regional development should include a temporal perspective, for studies of contemporary and economic impact are, by themselves, insufficient to explain tourism's contribution to regional development. Such a genetic approach is used to examine the growth and impact of tourism in Queenstown, New Zealand. Events and interrelationships are examined over the last twenty-five years to show the process of growth, changes in the patterns of local and outside involvement and the increasing sophistication of a resort once based largely on scenic factors alone. Certain sectors of the industry have been developed primarily by individuals and companies from the local region, while others have been dominated by outsiders. Although the former contribute the most to regional development through local participation in the development process, external developments have also generated complementary growth. A consideration of events over a certain time span allows these different factors to be placed more clearly in the context of regional development.