Towards a cohesive curriculum tourism: The case for a distinct discipline

This paper addresses a controversial topic in tourism scholarship which is simultaneously a problem and an opportunity in tourism education: the philosophical issue of academic disciplines and specifically, the question of a distinct discipline in tourism studies. It is argued that the orthodox approach to tourism education, multi-disciplinary studies, has become an impediment. It is suggested that a new discipline can be created by organizing the existing body of knowledge and that such a discipline can become the core of an inter-disciplinary approach. Certain characteristics of an embryonic discipline are outlined and innovations in this area at Sydney Technical College are discussed.     

The effects of scale in tourism projects in developing countries

The paper by Rodenburg (Annals VII:2:177–196) on the effect of scale in tourism development in Bali raises important questions relating to tourism development in Third World countries. One fundamental question is whether large-scale development is inevitable in such countries, or whether there is persuasive evidence to support smaller and craft scale enterprises. This article undertakes a critical review of Rodenburg's analysis and concludes that large scale developments are likely to be inevitable because of external economies of scale and market structures in international tourism, but that the consequences of such developments can be foreseen and therefore mitigated by appropriate pre-project planning.     

The political economy of tourism in the third world

When a Third World country uses tourism as a development strategy, it becomes enmeshed in a global system over which it has little control. The international tourism industry is a product of metropolitan capitalist enterprise. The superior entrepreneurial skills, resources, and commercial power of metropolitan companies enables them to dominate many Third World tourist destinations. This paper outlines the dynamics of this process, particularly in the context of the South Pacific.     

Anthropology and tourism: A science-industry evaluation

The anthropological contribution to touristic study derives from this discipline's holistic perception of human culture and its comparative methodology. Renewed use of the “national character” approach, applying traditional field methods to industrial societies, would serve to identify elements stimulating tourism in the donor area and the needs within the recipient region. A tourist region is defined as a marketable destination with the surrounding support zones to supply requisite visitor services. The relationship between tourism and regional development needs to be assessed in terms of the economy theory of multiplier effect, as money, goods, services and people flow between the regional core and its support zones. Models illustrate internal development as well as donor-recipient relations. Science and industry share common goals in development and management of tourism, noted by efforts to educate the decision-makers as well as the tourist.     

U.S. tourism in Mexico: An empirical analysis

This study estimated demand functions for tourism by U.S. residents in Mexico border areas, the Mexican interior, and overseas. There was no evidence that U.S. tourists substitute Mexico for more distant destinations as transportation costs rise. Border tourism is income elastic when the share of U.S. income of the border states is held fixed. Tourism in the Mexican interior is also income elastic. Tourism along the border is price elastic, while tourism in the interior is elastic with respect to U.S. and overseas prices but inelastic with respect to Mexican prices. The rise in the share of the Mexican interior in U.S. overseas tourism is not related to price factors. Recent devaluations of the Mexican peso are unlikely to provide benefits to the Mexican tourism industry.     

The framework of tourism : Towards a definition of tourism, tourist, and the tourist industry

Leiper, Neil, “The Framework of Tourism: Towards a Definition of Tourism, Tourist, and the Tourist Industry,” Annals of Tourism Research, 1979, VI(4):390–407. A framework for the general study of tourism is discussed. Three approaches to the topic: economic, technical, and holistic are identified and analysed; it is argued that its multi facets require a holistic definition. A systems methodology is used to develop a new definition of tourism. Five elements are isolated: tourists, three geographical elements (generating region, transit route, and destination region), and a tourist industry. The process of tourism is dissected to show that it is inherently a partially-industrialized one, and the tourist industry is shown to contain several sectors with functional and spatial connections across the system. Suggested applications of the framework are proposed, in academic research, education, business and government arenas of tourism. The main theme is that tourism's many facets are connected and that it is both possible and desirable to include an explicit recognition of those connections in general studies of the subject.

Résumé

Leiper, Neil, “Le Cadre théorique du tourisme: Pour une définition du tourisme, du touriste, et de l'industrie touristique,” Annals of Tourism Research, octobre/decembre 1979, VI(4):390–407. On discute un cadre théorique pour l'étude générale du tourisme. On présente et analyse trois façons d'aborder le sujet: économique, technique et globale, et on propose que l'aspect multi-dimensionnel du tourisme du tourisme fait que le tourisme exige une définition globale. On emploie une méthodologie de systémes pour développer une nouvelle définition pour le tourisme. On réussit á isoler cinq éléments: touristes, industrie touristique, région génératrice, route de passage, et région de destination, ces trois derniers formant les éléments géographiques. On disséque le processus du tourisme pour montrer qu'il est fondamentalement mi-industrialisé. On montre que l'industrie touristique comprend plusieurs secteurs, avec des liaisons fonctionnelles et spatiales á travers le systéme. On propose des applications de ce cadre dans les domaines suivants du tourisme: recherche universitaire, éducation, affaires et gouvernement. Enfin, la thése de cet article est que les divers aspects du tourisme sont reliés et qu'il est á la fois possible et désirable de reconnaître ces liaisons d'une facon explicite dans les études générales du sujet.     

Development of advanced tourism studies in Holland

Bodewes, Theo, Development of Advanced Tourism Studies in Holland. Annals of Tourism Research 1981, VIII(1):35–51. The entry of tourism studies into the field of advanced education is often a difficult process. Theory and practice sometimes serve conflicting interests. In the Netherlands an option has been taken for a theoretical, multi-disciplinary approach with links to the field of practice. Within this framework, tourism is indissolubly connected with leisure and recreation, leisure being the core of studies. This implies that the universities should educate leisure economists, leisure sociologists, etc., and that advanced professional educational institutions should educate leisure experts. This paper discusses whether the problems and solutions in the Netherlands are recognizable and/or useful abroad, and whether one institution can learn from the experiences of others.     

Evolution of tourism in the Scottish highlands

The evolution of the tourist industry of the Scottish highlands is discussed from the early eighteenth century until the beginning of the nineteenth century. Five stages of development are identified, which reflect the social, economic and technological changes occuring in Britain during those periods. The importance of fashion and taste and transportation improvements are given special emphasis. The early pattern of development of infrastructure structure and land use has significantly influenced the present characteristics of the tourist industry in the area.     

Marginal paradises: Bungalow tourism on the islands of Southern Thailand

In a longitudinal comparative study, some current issues concerning the nature, penetration, and impact of youth tourism on two beaches on two differentially developed islands in southern Thailand are examined. The beaches are “marginal paradises”—touristic paradises marginal to both the life plan of the tourists and the ecology and economy of the native society. Contrary to a widespread idea, vacationing youth tourists seek mainly “recreational” experiences, resembling those sought by most mass tourists, and show marked narcissistic tendencies. They have few relations among themselves or with the natives. Superficial native friendliness covers up a deeper resentment of the foreigners; while nude bathing causes inter-cultural misunderstanding, animosity finds expression in tourist- oriented crime. Though tourism development is of the small scale “craft” type, its benefits for the surrounding native villages are few, especially on the more developed island, where urban businessmen control the beach. The study lends some support to the multi-lineal model of touristic development, with the two beaches mainfesting differential development dynamics     

Social planning for tourism in the developing countries

The usual perspectives on tourism planning have been economic. This paper argues for the need to take much more explicit account of non-economic costs (and benefits) in this field, and links the discussion to questions that have preoccupied those concerned with general issues of development in recent years. It emphasises that planners act in specific socio-politocal contexts, and that it is especially the dynamics of class structures and theis expression in the power relations at local and national levels which influence outcomes in this field. Practical issues of social planning for tourism are discussed, and the dangers of development which is too massive and too fast are stressed. Some attention is also paid to the role of transnational enterprises in the tourism field, and to the question of bargaining at the international level.     

Site and situation strategy in tourism planning: A Mexican case study

Mexico has experienced all the effects, good and ill, of a large and expanding tourist trade. Tourism's negative consequences--economic dependency, crime, cultural erosion--have manifested themselves in tourist ghettos along Mexico's northern border, on the Mexican Riviera, and in the capital. This study is an assesment of contemporary Mexican tourism planning as it relates to these problems, and further as it seeks to make tourism a stimulus to economically depressed areas of the nation. A case study approach is utilized to identify the strategy of site and situation selection for the new programmed resort complex at Cancun on the Caribbean coast of the Yucatan peninsula. It is concluded that Cancun embodies, at least for Mexico, a radical departure in tourism development. The resort is situated to attract a large foreign clientele and to create the greatest possible positive economic and social impact on a resident Mexican population that has suffered chronic underdevelopment.     

The effects of scale in economic development: Tourism in Bali

Eric E. Rodenburg, The Effects of Scale in Economic Development: Tourism in Bali. Annals of Tourism Research 1980, VII(2):177–196. Planners promote tourism to meet the objectives of economic development. Different scales of enterprise, however, meet the objectives of planners in different ways. Data from Bali, Indonesia, illustrate the differential social and economic effects of three scales of tourism enterprise; large industrial, small industrial and craft tourism. A comparison of these segments of the continuum of tourism enterprises in Bali shows that the objectives of economic planners (increased earnings, foreign exchange, investment, job opportunities, production, entreprenuership, infrastructure, and the minimization of adverse social and cultural effects) are not best met through the promotion of large, industrially scaled enterprises.     

Economic and social correlates of handicraft selling in Tonga

Although tourism has stimulated employment opportunities in many Pacific island nations, some scholars argue that it has been at the expense of individual pride, cultural values and traditional occupations. Few scholars, however, have investigated whether such traditional occupations are actually available to all segments of contemporary Pacific island populations. Detailed examination of the economic options and activities of itinerant handicraft sellers in Tonga suggests that overpopulation and land shortages severely restrict participation in traditional occupations. Handicraft selling is consequently viewed by many Tongans as an immediate source of much needed cash, having low costs for the producer and providing freedom to participate in other socioeconomic and village activities.     

Host community acceptance of foreign tourists: Strategic considerations

The reported empirical study assessed anticipated reactions to foreign visitors in an area being considered for a tourism development program. Although a generally high level of acceptance was predicted by the residents, over 11% of the 846 respondents anticipated negative reactions within their residential community. Analysis of the possible relationships between twelve demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of the respondents and their expectations concerning host community acceptance of tourists from foreign countries disclosed only one statistically significant relationship. Survey participants who reported living in urban areas assessed the community's probable reaction to foreign travellers most positively, while a movement away from urban centers was associated with more negative expectations.     

The impact of tourism on a dependent island: Gozo,Malta

Tourism for the 22,000 inhabitants of Gozo, Malta's underdeveloped sister island, means just over one hundred foreign residents, several hundred hotel visitors, and an annual stream of several hundred thousand day trippers from Malta. For Gozitans tourism has provided substantial earnings for a few catering and transport entrepreneurs, permanent employment for a few hundreds, and a modest income for some 1,600 women and girls producing handicraft souvenirs at home. However, the tourist connection to Gozo is controlled by Maltese, who obtain a disproportionate share of the industry's earnings. Increasingly Gozitans resent the way Maltese exploit their island, pollute it with picnic rubbish and treat them as backward. They compare their patronizating neighbours to the polite, free spending foreigners by whom they are treated with respect. Foreign appreciation of their rural environment and lifestyle has increased Gozitan self confidence, even as it has exacerbated their traditional resentment of Maltese cultural, social, and economic dominance. On balance, Gozitans from all walks of life regard tourism positively, especially its benefits to their underdeveloped economy.