Static electricity: Rules for plant safety

The tasks and aims of the Commission involve the promotion of safety in the chemical industry. Its membership is composed of individuals who hold positions with responsibilities for safety in chemical industrial concerns, in SUVA (Swiss national accident insurance fund) and the Swiss federal labor inspectorate as well as people at educational establishments in a position to further the importance of industrial safety; all are members ad personam. The Commission endeavors to recognize current safety problems and tasks of comparatively major importance and to initiate and promote their treatment by specialists or specialist working parties from industrial firms and government organizations. The tasks involve not only the countering of directly recognizable risks by suitable measures but also the continuous extension and improvement of the methods and instrumentation used to recognize risks. In situations where fundamental statutory principles or recognized guidelines for industrial safety problems are lacking, the Commission attempts to derive practicable recommendations based on practical experience and the findings of the working parties. In collaboration with the authorities, the Commission strives for meaningful interpretations and practical solutions within the framework of statutes and official regulations, and it is at the service of the authorities in the preparation of guidelines and fundamental statutory principles. The Commission publishes findings and working party results arising from its activities in appropriate form. The reliability of such information must be assessed by the reader and no liability is accepted for its use. An important part of the Commission's work involves safety education. Seminars and courses are held regularly to promote this aspect in universities and technical colleges. The activities of the Commission are primarily supported by those firms and organizations whose employees are members. The results of the work are, however, available in principle to all interested parties.     

Agencies and directions of Japanese policy

A major objective of Japanese telecommunications policy over the past thirty years has been to modify the traditional government monopoly and create a new communications environment. Although the country's internal conflicts and arguments are rooted in its historical and cultural background, a policy consensus is now emerging. In connection with this development, the author describes relevant government agencies and then outlines the major topics of debate relating to the development of Japan into an information-oriented society.     

The President's Housing Commission and Two Tests of Realistic Recommendations

The most commendable work of the President's Housing Commission suffered from two major faults. First, the Commission failied to quantify the costs of alternative policies. This led to biased judgments about what forms of housing aids to adopt. The Commission rejected making housing vouchers for poor renters an entitlement program because that would be too costly. But it accepted continuation of present tax benefits for non-poor homeowners, though they are also entitlements vastly more expensive than the program it rejected. Second, the Commission correctly attacked local government restrictions for causing high housing costs. But it failed to provide any strong incentives for local governments to reduce such restrictions.     

The European Commission's approach to mergers involving software-based platforms: Towards a better understanding of platform power

The European Commission’s digital single market policies are increasingly concerned with the impact of so-called ‘platforms’ on competition in the internal market. Whereas the European Commission acknowledges the contributions of platform companies to innovation, it also sees actual and potential damages occurring from their powerful position. As such, the European Commission aims to strengthen the enforcement of its competition law rules in this area. The main research question is how the European Commission has been evaluating the competitive effects of platforms under merger control and whether its approach is adequate to address the manifold concerns related to platforms and competition. Based on a case study analysis, we conclude that the European Commission (1) recognises the platform circumstance, their essential intermediary role in the digital industry and the importance of maintaining fair competition; (2) its analysis has been slowly evolving becoming more granular; (3) platforms’ behaviour and not their size per se is most often the central concern; (4) the proposed Digital Services Act and Digital Markets Act packages tackle platform concerns identified in the European Commission’s ex-ante analysis, signalling that its analysis seems to have inspired their creation.     

The Commission's Recommendations on Housing Finance

The Commission proposes radical changes in the structure of institutions supplying residential mortgage funds. By massive broadening of their asset and liability powers, the thrifts are to become quasi-banks. The resulting housing credit gap is to be filled by multipurpose lenders, notably pension funds, and by greater use of mortgage securities backed by conventional as well as FHA and VA loans. For these changes, the Commission relies on the magic of deregulation, initiated partly in the Depository Institutions Act of 1982. A mortgage investment tax credit is proposed to cushion adverse effects on housing, but its adoption is highly unlikely. The Commission's expectations of structural reform through deregulation are overdrawn. Hence, its approach would probably reduce resource allocation to housing. The assertion that the new system would be more efficient is not supported by the meager analysis offered in the Report . Likewise, the claim of greater cyclical stability of mortgage lending remains unsubstantiated. The Commission also recommends curtailment of federal programs supporting the private housing sector: restricting FHA to high-risk loans and phasing down the GNMA guaranty of mortgage securities. But the proposals for FNMA and FHLMC stop short of cutting their umbilical cords of government.     

European Economic Community industrial research priorities for the early 1980s

Respondents claimed that European effort on basic research rnay have so diminished that the long-term competitiveness of its industries is endangered. They saw a major role for the Commission in redressing this imbalance. There was little support for Commission sponsorship of applied industrial research. Some respondents felt that this could even be counter-productive by diluting effort in areas seen as important by industrial management. A role was seen for the commission in supporting more research on the legislative context and general environment in which industry operates ('contextual research'). The need for such research imposes a growing burden on industry and diverts scarce resources from work directly related to competitiveness.
A study sponsored by the Commission of the European Communities aimed to identify the types of R & D activity in aid of European industry that the Commission might support over the next three or four years. The findings are based on interviews with senior managers from some fifty firms, representing eight sectors of manufacturing industry in five European countries.     

EC competition law and the convergence of the telecommunications and broadcasting sectors

This article surveys how convergence is dealt with in the main areas of EC competition law. First, under Article 90 EC Treaty, the Commission has not yet reached a solution to the problems of TOs holding exclusive rights over cable TV networks or providing broadcasting services over their telecommunications networks. Secondly, while the Commission has largely upheld certain policy lines in individual decisions, it has reached markedly different outcomes in the broadcasting and telecommunications sectors. The Commission has not been able successfully to integrate non-economic factors in its competition law analysis. Third, State aid problems are likely to arise in relation with production subsidies and compulsory broadcasting fees. In the end, competition law must still evolve to deal with convergence, but in doing so it is likely to pre-empt regulatory options.     

The development of business–government strategies by diversified firms

This paper uses grounded theory to explore internal (intrafirm) conflicts in the formulation of business–government strategies by corporations with diversified business units. We find that three types of conflict exist within firms: conflict over proactive policy positions advocated by the firm (prepolicy issues), conflict over reactive internal distribution of compliance costs/benefits (postpolicy issues), and representational conflict (e.g., individual business units vs. corporate representation in the external public policy arena). We also develop a grounded framework for organizational structures for conflict resolution in the strategic management of government relations, based upon our case studies, and find a relationship between particular structures and the degree of diversification. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Market Power in Chinese Taipei: Laws, Policies and Treatments

The experience of Chinese Taipei shows that opening up a previously protected market to new entrants can be a more effective and reliable way to enhance competition than regulating the behavior of dominant or monopolistic firms. Moreover, when opening up the market, the liberalizing measures adopted by government should be market-structure-neutral. That is, it should not try to dictate the direction and results of market competition. A more pressure-resistant mechanism should be designed to deal with market power, taking the form of a regime that is cross-sector, independent and collective in its decision-making, such as has been the case with Chinese Taipei's Fair Trade Commission.     

产业集群生态化及其模式的构建研究

通过界定产业集群生态化的概念,在分析企业内部清洁生产模式和平等型及依托型产业集群生态化模式的基础上,构建了以企业内部低资源化为基点分别产业共生网络、绿色供应网络、废弃物质资源化输出、物质“零排放”及专业废弃物处理五方面实现产业集群生态化的实践路径。并进一步指出产业集群生态化是一个多方参与协作的过程,政府、大学、科研院所、中介机构等的大力扶植是其顺利开展的有效保障。     

Reshaping European metrology research – the role of national research managers

This paper deals with the role of research and development (R&D) managers in shaping the landscape of public research in Europe. These R&D managers work in the sphere of public research within national government laboratory services. The case we present is of the reconfiguration of metrology research. Metrology is the science of measurement. We examine why scientists and research managers in nationally embedded institutes, which are performing R&D in support of national policy and local industry needs, have chosen to co‐operate in a shared research programme. This means giving up, in part, their national sovereignty over funds and decision making. Furthermore, we examine how they have achieved the shared programme, which was launched as a European Commission (EC) programme through the Article 185 ¹ initiative, which allows the European Union to participate in research programmes undertaken jointly by several Member States.     

Economics at the Federal Communications Commission

This article reviews several issues confronted by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) over the past year and discusses some of the economic analysis employed by the FCC in examining these issues. The article also identifies areas in which future academic research would be valuable to the agency.Thanks are due to Heather Dixon, David Fiske, Evan Kwerel, Jonathan Levy, and Larry White (the editor) for useful comments. The opinions expressed here are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect those of the FCC, its staff, or commissioners.     

Early Settlement in European Merger Control

We analyse the determinants of early settlement between merging parties and the European Commission over remedies that remove concerns of anticompetitive effects. This extends the previously narrow range of econometric literature on early settlement. Consistent with the theory of early settlement, our results confirm the importance of delay costs and of uncertainty, measured by the complexity of the economic analysis required for each merger. We also find a non‐monotonic effect of agency resourcing, which raises questions about the Commission's efficiency in times of high case load. Econometrically, we select a sample of merger decisions in which the European Commission intervened due to concerns of anticompetitive effects, and our selection model provides estimates of the factors determining intervention by the Commission. Conclusions are drawn for public policy.     

Economics at the FCC: 2007–2008

In any given year, the Federal Communications Commission confronts many issues of interest to economists. This paper summarizes four issues of interest during the last year: Spectrum Auctions, Media Ownership, Quality-Adjusted Cable Prices, and Leased Access. It highlights the role that economic analysis played in each and identifies areas where further research would be fruitful. This article was drafted while the first author was Chief Economist at the Federal Communications Commission. The opinions expressed here are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the Federal Communications Commission, its Commissioners, or its staff. We would like to thank Larry White and Tracy Waldon for helpful comments.     

25 years of European merger control

We study the determinants of common European merger policy over its first 25 years, from 1990 to 2014. Using a novel dataset at the level of the relevant antitrust markets and containing all relevant merger cases notified to the European Commission, we evaluate how consistently arguments related to structural market parameters – dominance, rising concentration, barriers to entry, and foreclosure – were applied over time and across different geographic market definitions. On average, linear probability models overestimate the effects of structural indicators. Using non-parametric machine learning techniques, we find that dominance is positively correlated with competitive concerns, especially in markets with a substantial increase in post-merger concentration and in complex mergers. Yet, its importance decreased following the 2004 merger policy reform. Competitive concerns are also correlated with rising concentration, especially if entry barriers and foreclosure are of concern. The impact of these structural indicators in explaining competitive concerns is independent of the geographic market definition and does not change over time.     

Empirical Analysis of Merger Enforcement Under the 1992 Merger Guidelines

This paper presents an analysis of merger enforcement at the Federal Trade Commission under the 1992 Merger Guidelines. The econometric analysis suggests that enforcement decisions are best predicted with the Herfindahl index when the relevant theory is collusion and the number of significant rivals when the relevant theory is unilateral effects. Evidence such as “hot” documents, customer complaints, and historical events suggestive of past competitive problems also increase the chance of a challenge. Mirror image considerations suggestive of continued post-merger competition (“cold” documents, customer support, and procompetitive events) reduce the probability of challenge in one specification. This article is based on non-public data obtained from Federal Trade Commission internal files. The Commission’s General Counsel has authorized publication of such data in aggregated form under Commission Rule 4.11(g), 16 C.F.R. 4.11(g). I would like to thank David Scheffman, Paul Pautler, Elizabeth Callison, and Jeffrey Fischer for helpful comments on the project and Anthony Alcorn, Brian Cross, Fulvio Cajina, Paul Golaszewski, Wendy Hanson, Janet Ireland, Karl Kindler, Michael Madigan, Madeleine McChesney, Joseph Remy, and especially Matthew Tschetter for research assistance in assembling the data. Of course, the analyses and conclusions set forth in this paper remain those of the author and do not necessarily represent the views of the Federal Trade Commission, any individual Commissioner, or any Commission Bureau.     

The Pacific Islands. Policy options for telecommunications investment

The Independent Commission for World-Wide Telecommunications Development (Maitland Commission) reported that telecommunication networks, including public telephone systems, are an infrastructure which aids economic development throughout the world. The Commissions objective is to bring the majority of the world's population within easy access of a telephone and, in time, other communications services. Development in the Pacific Islands region is slowed by a lack of efficient communications. The islands are spread over 29 million square kilometers of ocean and extremely vulnerable to natural disasters. Pacific Island Nations (PINs) have problems of foreign exchange, skill shortages, and poor credit terms. Telecommunications infrastructure audits showed the overall regional teledensity of 3 telephones per 100 population. The individual countries vary form 8.3 in Fiji to 1.5 in Papua New Guinea and 25.2 in New Zealand. The population of the developing island countries is in mostly rural areas where there is a chronic shortage of telephones. The constraints on radio systems can be overcome with satellite technology. The new technologies are coming on the market faster than these countries can afford to handle them. By using satellite technology and sharing facilities PINs can greatly reduce the cost of telecommunications systems. Fiber optic cables will be used to carry large volumes of traffic over major routes while satellites can be used for a array of services for the smallest PIN nation to the largest route rim country. Work is being done to standardize the equipment specifications and to develop policies for the coordination of regional telecommunications training. To further facilitate communications development in this area, changes need to be made in international funding priorities for development, and recommendations by the Maitland Commission must be taken seriously.     

某省火电机组理论上网标杆电价分析

2004年国家发改委在经营期电价政策基础上推出了标杆电价政策。2007--2008年,我国煤价不断上涨。为了解发电企业的经营状况,为价格管理部门合理核定新投产火电机组标杆上网电价提供参考,开展了某省火电机组理论上网标杆电价分析工作。在收集整理分析发电企业大量经营参数的基础上,得到经营期算法模型所需的计算参数,并对经营期算法参数进行了敏感性分析。     

Social imaginary and dilemmas of policy practice: The food safety arena in Japan

Through the string of food safety scares that has rocked Japanese society since the early 2000s, conflicts between the traditional notion of socially acceptable risk and the idea of a science-based risk analysis approach have surfaced in the food safety arena. Elites, including government officials and those members of scientific communities who support the science-based risk analysis approach, have become responsible for communicating seemingly contradictory ideas such as “food in Japan is safe” and “there is no such thing as zero risk with food.” This communication logjam has resulted in confusion and created public distrust of both government and scientific experts. Against this backdrop, this paper aims to examine the struggles and challenges faced by government officials in explaining and practicing policies that pertain to highly controversial food safety issues. The primary data used for illuminating the discourses is the official minutes of governmental committees including the Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries Committee and the Consumer Commission.     

Management myopia: A by-product of the business contract system in China?

This paper examines the role various environmental factors play in shaping short-term management behaviour in the context of the business contract system in China. Seven government officials and ten senior firm managers were interviewed in the city of Chongqing. It was found that dysfunctional behaviour displays itself mainly in the form of inappropriate performance measures and widespread manipulation of data. The study also demonstrates that most management problems originated from the environment over which the firm had little control rather than derived from the internal organisation of the firm. Environmental factors like uncertainties, inflation, government systems and capability of government officials were regarded as major determinants of the short-term behaviour.