Using the theory of planned behavior to predict food safety behavioral intention: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Approximately 61% of foodborne outbreaks in the United States are traced to food handler behavior. The literature suggests that food safety knowledge does not always translate into improved behaviors. Thus, multiple researchers have recommended an examination of the gap between knowledge and behavioral intentions. The purpose of this meta-analysis was to evaluate the ability of the Theory of Planned Behavior to predict food safety intentions.A total of 1550 studies were screened against the inclusion criteria, leaving 46 study records. The overall random effect size (r) was 0.282 (p < 0.001), indicated that the Theory of Planned Behavior constructs significantly predicted food safety behavioral intention. Subjective norms were identified as the most influential variable. The between-study heterogeneity ratio was low and non-significant, suggesting that individual food safety intentions were very similar in various service environments. Studies with a large sample tended to have significantly stronger individual norms to intention relationships. Stronger individual norms created a correspondent group culture that encouraged others to react or conform to the norm. With low true effect variances, a considerable amount of the variance is still subject to future research.     

Restaurants and COVID-19: What are consumers’ risk perceptions about restaurant food and its packaging during the pandemic?

The COVID-19 pandemic and subsequent U.S. in-restaurant dining restrictions deleteriously affected the restaurant industry. While dining restrictions were adopted to prevent human contact, evidence suggests that consumers may mistakenly perceive that restaurant "food" and its "packaging" are risky sources of COVID-19. To explore consumers' COVID-19 risk perceptions about food itself, restaurant food specifically, and restaurant food packaging, this study collected nationwide U.S. consumer survey data (n = 958) using an online consumer panel. Findings showed that: (1) consumers were less concerned about contracting COVID-19 from food in general than restaurant food and its packaging, with consumer restaurant concern highest for food served in restaurants, and lowest for hot/cooked restaurant food followed by restaurant food from carry-out; and (2) the risk perceptions of consumers varied with financial concern for food, gender, and being in a high-risk category of COVID-19. Implications for researchers, restauranteurs, government, and food safety professionals are discussed.     

An examination of food tourist’s behavior: Using the modified theory of reasoned action

A number of studies have been conducted to examine the behavior of tourists. However, there has been little research done on food tourism examining food tourist’s behavior. Food tourism is one of the fastest growing industries and areas of interest in the tourism industry today. The current study provides an integrated approach to understand the effect of food tourists’ behavior based on perceived value and satisfaction as it relates to their intention to revisit using the modified theory of reasoned action (TRA). The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of perceived value on intention to revisit (H1) and satisfaction (H2), and satisfaction on intention to revisit (H3). Empirical findings indicated that H1, H2, and H3 were supported significantly in this study (p < 0.01). H1 was supported (β = 0.67) showing the perceived value is the antecedent of satisfaction. H2 and 3 suggested that attendees’ intention to revisit is predicted by the perceived value (β = 0.13) and satisfaction (β = 0.67) respectively. The most significant contribution of this study is a theoretical understanding with empirical results using the new factors (i.e., perceived value, satisfaction, and intention to revisit) in the context of the modified TRA rather than using the original factors. The implications will be very useful for food festival organizers as well as destination marketing organizations.     

Leading by example: A three-wave sequential mixed method food safety study

Foodservice employees that fail to adhere to food safety practices may directly introduce pathogens that can cause illness and death. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore managerial practices that influence employee’s food safety behaviors, using a two-phase sequential mixed-method approach.A total of 642 foodservice employees currently working in the United States participated in a survey about food safety knowledge and food safety behavioral intentions. Among these, 263 were invited to answer a set of open-ended qualitative questions, 36 participants responded to the questions, and two participants were selected for in-depth interviews.The majority of the employees are optimistic about their daily food safety practices. However, cross-analyses noted that the majority of employees failed the quiz regarding basic food safety knowledge. Further analyses documented that time-constraint and lack of managerial role modeling in daily food safety practices can post a considerable threat to maintaining food safety behaviors.     

Investigating the effects of explanatory-based food safety training: A model of domain knowledge theory perspective

Food safety training is essential to reducing foodborne illness; however, limited research has investigated the effects of food safety training content on training effectiveness. Therefore, drawing on the model of domain learning theory, the current study examined the influence of explanatory-based training (EBT; i.e., microbiology and epidemiology knowledge introduction) on the effectiveness of food handlers’ training. Adopting a longitudinal between-subject experimental design and multilevel linear modeling, the study showed that food handlers attending EBT demonstrated significant progress in food safety knowledge acquisition and reported high generalization ability, while only food handlers with high levels of mastery goal-orientation showed increased motivation to learn food safety after attending EBT. Additionally, food safety domain knowledge mediates the relationship between EBT and food handlers’ training effectiveness. This study provides theoretical and practical contributions to food safety training literature by explaining the underlying mechanism that operates between domain knowledge and food safety training effectiveness.     

Antecedents and outcomes of restaurant employees’ food safety intervention behaviors

Restaurants are likely culprits of having foodborne illness outbreaks, causes of which are often linked to employees failing to control food threats during the flow of food. Research indicates that many food risks posed by restaurants could be thwarted if employees would intervene as threats are noticed. For unknown reasons, employees are not always motivated to reduced or eliminate threats when observing poor food safety behaviors, regardless of position, education, or experience in the industry.This study applies the elaboration likelihood model of persuasion (ELM) and protection motivation (PMT) theories to investigate employee reactions to food safety threats. Of keen interest was to identify employees of differing positions in the restaurant and to study how they react to food safety threats to either intervene, passively dismiss, or simply leave the location of the incident.     

The effect of psychological empowerment climate on restaurant food safety,food quality,and financial performance

ABSTRACT

Consumer food safety incidences that result from employee accidents and behaviors can be detrimental and costly to a restaurant organization. Restaurant organizations and hospitality researchers have sought multiple methods of increasing food safety performance through training and intervention, but this study suggests that shared agreement of psychological empowerment may be a key factor in improving food safety performance, and in turn, food quality and store revenues. Using data from a national chain of quick service restaurants, this study used groups of restaurant employees’ psychological empowerment as an antecedent to food safety performance, measured in a food safety audit, and found significant support. Moreover, using consumer evaluations of food quality and the organization's store revenue records, indirect and direct relationships among psychological empowerment, food safety performance, food quality, and revenues were found. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.     

Does mandatory food safety training and certification for restaurant employees improve inspection outcomes?

The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between mandatory food safety training and certification and inspection results of chain restaurants and independent restaurants, using current food safety inspection results of food service establishments in Central Florida. More specifically, this study examines whether there is any statistically significant difference in the violation frequency among chain and independent restaurants. Reducing the risk of any foodborne illness is a critical strategy that industry stakeholders should pursue in an area dominated by tourism such as Orlando, Florida. A one-way ANOVA was used to determine the differences between the two types of restaurants. Findings indicate that there is significant difference between chain and independent restaurants for critical violations. No difference was found when comparing chain verses independent restaurants for non-critical violations.     

Understanding responses to posted restaurant food safety scores: An information processing and regulatory focus perspective

Ensuring the safety of food served in restaurants continues to be an essential issue in the hospitality industry. An important part of the efforts to stem the outbreak of foodborne illnesses are the mandatory inspections of any entity that serves food to the public. Unfortunately, while posting food safety scores is intended to help consumers make better dining choices, interpreting these scores can often be difficult and confusing. The purpose of this study is to use information processing theory as a framework to investigate how consumers evaluate food safety inspection scores. To achieve this goal, this research provides an account of the effect of food safety concern on consumers’ attitudes toward restaurants under conditions of both positive and negative health inspection results. The results identify a moderating effect of health score in the formation of consumers’ attitudes toward restaurants. The downstream effects on expected satisfaction and behaviors are also established.     

Burnout and food safety: Understanding the role of job satisfaction and menu complexity in foodservice

This study measures job motivation, satisfaction, and burnout amongst foodservice employees, as well as the menu complexity in foodservice establishments. It verifies the relationship between these factors and food safety practices. We visited 20 foodservice establishments and interviewed 202 foodservice employees. Job motivation, satisfaction, and burnout were assessed using validated questionnaires. Menu complexity was evaluated by considering the number of meals prepared in different courses. Data relating to food safety violations were obtained using a food safety checklist. Our findings show that foodservice employees exhibit high levels of job motivation, job satisfaction, and personal burnout. In restaurants with more complex menus, instances of burnout as well as food safety violations are higher, and these have a negative impact on foodservice employees’ job motivation. Job satisfaction is positively affected by job motivation and negatively affected by burnout. Cognitive aspects of food safety, practical implications, and limitations of this study are discussed.     

The occurrence of Listeria monocytogenes in mass catering: An overview in the European Union

Listeria monocytogenes is the causative agent of the human illness called listeriosis. The data reported in the last 15 years of scientific literature concerning the relationship between this microorganism and the catering sector showed a permanent presence of the opportunistic pathogen through the years, though with low frequencies. Even though the pathogenic capacity of L. monocytogenes is practically circumscribed to a few risk categories as pregnant women, newborns and different kinds of immunocompromised people, given its high case-fatality rate this disease represents the second cause of death for foodborne infection in Europe. As it emerged from the reviewed literature, L. monocytogenes was recovered in many different food categories, which testifies the widespread of the pathogen in the food chain. The main causes of L. monocytogenes presence were poor microbiological quality of raw materials, cross-contamination, inadequate cleaning practices, improper storage temperature, inadequate preparation processes, and a lack in the training of staff on food hygiene. In particular, cross-contamination of foods can be reduced by hand washing, use of gloves, separation of raw materials from end products, sanitation and disinfection of equipment and food contact surfaces, hence, a structured training program of staff on these practices is essential.     

Tackling food waste in all-inclusive resort hotels

Food waste remains a serious environmental and economic concern within the hospitality and tourism industry. This study therefore investigates how managers, chefs, and employees in all-inclusive hotels view the impact of food waste and extant waste reduction processes in their workplaces. It explores (1) why and how food waste occurs, (2) employees’ perceptions of the reasons behind food waste, and (3) how it can be reduced in all-inclusive hotels. Semi-structured face-to-face interviews were undertaken with 33 individuals working in all-inclusive hotels in Turkey. The findings indicate that guest behaviors, preferences, and attitudes are perceived as the primary stimulants of food waste. The findings also suggest that guests’ cultural backgrounds influence their eating behaviors, further contributing to the volume of waste generated. As such, this study provides a nascent exploration of employee perceptions of the reasons behind food waste, and how best to reduce it, in the all-inclusive resort hotel context.     

Consumer Confidence Regarding the Safety of the US Food Supply

ABSTRACT

This study assessed the perceptions of Kentucky consumers regarding the safety of the nation's food supply. Data were collected through a telephone survey of 728 respondents. Overall, most consumers were very or somewhat confident in the nation's food supply. Significant differences were noted among consumers based on age, gender and household income. The most likely locations for food safety problems were identified as food processing plants, followed by restaurants. Respondents that were most confident in the nation's food supply believed food poisoning occurred less frequently than those who were not confident in the food supply. Those consumers who were very confident and somewhat confident in the food supply had a significantly different perception of health risks in food from germs, pesticide residues and preservatives than those who had no confidence in the food supply. Respondents with someone in the household working in the foodservice industry were not significantly different in their confidence of the nation's food supply, or in their opinion of where food safety problems occur, than those who did not. Implications for the foodservice and hospitality industry are discussed.     

The antecedents and outcomes of food safety motivators for restaurant workers: An expectancy framework

Individual food handlers’ motivations to comply with established guidelines in restaurant organizations were explored in this national study of 755 restaurant managers and employees in the United States. Using expectancy theory, workers’ motivations to comply with stated food safety regulations were measured. Overall, the results indicated support for expectancy theory and the proposed extension of this framework to restaurant employees’ perceptions of food safety and sanitation. However, there was no support in the model for restaurant workers to follow food sanitation regulations in the relationship between extrinsic valence and motivation. It was determined that this relationship is moderated by the length of time the employee has worked in the restaurant industry.     

Critical food safety violations in Florida: Relationship to location and chain vs. non-chain restaurants

This study explores the relationship between the number of critical food safety violations and the restaurant's status as either a chain or independent foodservice provider and location. The State of Florida categorized the restaurant operations according to the type of license obtained, chain or independent. Chain restaurants are defined as multi-unit restaurants owned or operated by the same company or individual that total seven locations or more. Data for the current study was retrieved from the public records for the fiscal years 2009–2010 and 2010–2011. The study found that both the aggregate number of critical violations and risk factors and the number of individual critical violations and risk factors were significantly different among chain and non-chain restaurants in the state of Florida. Results indicate that the number of critical violations received is impacted by both the location of the restaurant and whether the restaurant is independently operated or a chain. The current study assists in explaining underlying reasons for repeated food safety violations despite Florida's required food safety training certification of restaurant managers and training of their staff; providing implications for academics and foodservice practitioners alike.     

Speaking of allergies: Communication challenges for restaurant staff and customers

Managing customer allergies is an essential job task for restaurant workers. The present study catalogs common work features and challenges involved in the verbal communication of food allergies. Allergy communication is approached as a form of risk communication occurring within a socio-technical work system. Critical incidents and qualitative surveys of restaurant staff (n = 138; 3400 statements), along with qualitative surveys of customers with allergies (n = 61; 795 statements), are subject to thematic analysis to examine those practices most likely to improve customer safety and subjective experience. Key findings suggest improved outcomes when staff prompt customers to disclose their allergies at first contact, when fewer staff are involved in allergy communication and management, and when double-checking/check-ins are integrated throughout the communication process. These can serve as provisional best practice recommendations, and should be studied more thoroughly in combination with written communication strategies, restaurant resources, and environmental demands.     

The Importance of Food Safety in Travel Planning and Destination Selection

Summary

This study investigates the strength of the relationship between the destination choices of respondents and the perceived risk of food-borne illnesses, as well as respondents' sources of information regarding food safety prior to traveling. Results indicate that food safety was of secondary importance to respondents with frequent travelers more willing to discount the use of food safety in their travel decisions. Female respondents were likely to regard food safety as more important than their male counterparts. Africa was the top region that most respondents would avoid due to food safety concerns. Friends and relatives, travel agents, and magazines and newspapers were the most common sources turned to for health and food safety information. Travel agents were not perceived as a reliable source of food safety information.     

Psychosocial work environment,work engagement,and employee commitment: A moderated,mediation model

This paper contributes to the growing body of literature on the wellbeing of hospitality employees from a perspective of strategic human resource management. The role of high performance work systems (HPWS) in enhancing the affective commitment of hospitality employees is examined. The study found work engagement to mediate the relationships between HPWS, perceived organizational support, and affective commitment. Workplace bullying, a highly prevalent phenomenon in the hospitality sector, was found to mediate the relationship between HPWS and affective commitment, while psychosocial safety climate moderated this mediating impact. We will suggest the implications for managing psychosocial work hazards in hospitality organizations.     

The roles of brand equity and branding strategy: A study of restaurant food crises

Food crises, such as food borne illnesses, are a major threat to the restaurant industry. However, consumer responses to a food crisis are expected to differ depending on the brand equity and branding strategy of the restaurant involved. In order to test the roles of brand equity and branding strategy in a food crisis situation, this study used a scenario-based experimental survey with a 2 (brand equity: Low/High) × 2 (branding strategy: Corporate branding/House-of-brands) × 2 (presence of crisis: No/Yes) design. The results of the study supported the “amplifying” perspective by providing evidence of the negative role of brand equity during a crisis. Moreover, the three-way interaction between brand equity, branding strategy, and presence of crisis revealed the effectiveness of the corporate branding strategy, which varies depending on the level of brand equity, under crises. The findings of this study will enable marketers to develop appropriate post-crisis strategies based on predicted consumer responses depending on the level of brand equity and branding strategy. Further discussion and implications are provided in the text.     

Over-ordering and food waste: The use of food delivery apps during a pandemic

There is a paucity of research on the role of food delivery apps (FDAs) in food waste generation. This gap needs to be addressed since FDAs represent a fast-growing segment of the hospitality sector, which is already considered to be a key food waste generator globally. Even more critically, FDAs have become a prominent source of ordering food during the COVID-19 pandemic. In addition, the growing usage of FDAs warrants an improved understanding of the complexities of consumer behavior toward them, particularly during a health crisis. The present study addresses this need by examining the antecedents of FDA users’ food ordering behavior during the pandemic that can lead to food waste. The study theorizes that hygiene consciousness impacts the enablers and barriers to FDA usage, which, in turn, shape the attitude toward FDAs and the tendency to order more food than required, i.e., shopping routine. The conceptual model, based on behavioral reasoning theory, was tested using data collected from 440 users of FDAs during the pandemic. The results support a positive association of trust and price advantage with attitude, but only of trust with shopping routine. Perceived severity and moral norms did not moderate any associations.