Consumption‐Focused Self‐Expression Word of Mouth: A New Scale and Its Role in Consumer Research

This research represents the first systematic empirical examination of the motivation to spread word of mouth about consumption activities in order to self‐express, a phenomenon that has been observed in both the academic literature and the popular press. Consumption‐focused self‐expression is a motivation to engage in word‐of‐mouth communication that is distinct from other word‐of‐mouth motivations that have been discussed in the literature. This work defines consumption‐focused self‐expression word of mouth as communication about one's consumption activities for the purpose of expressing one's self‐concept and attracting attention to oneself. A scale to measure consumption‐focused self‐expression word of mouth is developed and shown to exhibit a consistent scale structure, acceptable reliability, and convergent, discriminant, nomological, and predictive validity. Scores on the consumption‐focused self‐expression word‐of‐mouth scale are shown to predict differences in the quantity and nature of consumers’ actual word‐of‐mouth communications via the social networking Web site Facebook.     

The effectiveness of deservingness‐based advertising messages: The role of product knowledge and belief in a just world

Are advertisements that tell consumers they deserve a product effective? Given evidence showing people are motivated to get what they deserve, we argue that for certain consumers this is the case. In two experiments, we manipulated the type of ad participants viewed for a luxury product and then assessed ad effectiveness. We also measured participants’ belief in a just world (BJW) and product knowledge. Deservingness‐based ads were (a) more effective for strong BJW participants, mediated by the degree to which the ads matched participants’ worldview and justified buying the product, and (b) less effective for high knowledge participants. We conclude that deservingness‐based advertising can be successful, depending on consumer characteristics. Copyright © 2016 ASAC. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

How banner ads can be effective

This research examines the impacts of exposure duration and banner ad complexity on advertising persuasion in a web advertising environment. Processing fluency is used to explain the underlying process that occurs among consumers during exposure to advertisements, and refers to the ease of stimulus encoding and processing that is facilitated by prior exposure to a banner ad. Based on previous studies (e.g. Reber et al. 1998), this research used a priming phase and a testing phase, in which respondents viewed two banner ads for the same brand. A banner ad presented in the priming phase facilitates viewer processing of a target banner ad in the testing phase due to processing fluency. The findings show that, when a banner ad is difficult to process in the priming phase, increasing the duration of exposure to the ad in the priming phase causes a linear increase in respondent attitudes towards the target ad and brand in the testing phase. When the priming banner ad is moderately difficult to process, increasing the exposure duration in the priming phase first increases, and then decreases, respondent attitudes towards the target ad and brand (an inverted-U pattern) in the testing phase. When the priming banner ad is easy to process, increasing the exposure duration in the priming phase first decreases, and then increases, respondent attitudes towards the target ad and brand (a U pattern) in the testing phase.     

How money priming affects consumers in an advertising context: the role of product conspicuousness and consumers’ signalling needs

ABSTRACT

Effects of money priming on basic psychological processes are well established in the literature. However, research that investigates money priming in an advertising context is scarce. This article presents two empirical studies examining consumer reactions after being primed with money and exposed to advertisements presenting either conspicuous or non-conspicuous products. Consumer reactions were investigated with respect to their attitude towards the ad, product evaluation and signalling needs. The findings indicate that the evaluation of a conspicuous product, and the respective ad promoting it, benefit from money priming while the evaluation of a non-conspicuous product is not affected. Moreover, money priming elicits signalling needs in situations where consumers are confronted with conspicuous products. Our moderated mediation models show that these signalling needs mediate the positive effects of money priming in conspicuous situations.     

Ad framing effects for consumption products: An affect priming process

This research examines why positively framed messages work more effectively than negatively framed messages in product advertising by establishing an affect priming process model. Findings from Experiment 1 showed that positively framed ad messages evoked higher levels of positive affect and lower levels of negative affect than did negatively framed ad messages. Accordingly, positively framed ad messages generated more favorable ratings on ad believability, ad liking, and brand attitudes. Most importantly, this research demonstrated the process by which frame‐evoked affect exerted influence on brand attitudes via its impacts on priming affect‐congruent cognitive responses. Experiment 1 also found that positively framed ads encouraged participants to be attentive to and elaborate on messages more so than negatively framed ads. Findings from Experiment 2 further showed that ad framing effects were moderated by the type of product attributes being featured. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Conspicuous Consumption,Inequality and Debt: The Nature of Consumption‐driven Profit‐led Regimes

This paper extends the theoretical concept of wage‐led and profit‐led demand regimes by incorporating relative consumption concerns. Specifically, it integrates the Veblenian concept of conspicuous consumption into the Bhaduri–Marglin model by assuming that relative consumption concerns matter primarily within the working class. If in such a framework the profit share increases and the corresponding decrease in workers' income is distributed unevenly, efforts to ‘keep up with the Joneses’ may increase consumption and, hence, lead to a consumption‐driven profit‐led regime.     

Effects of game‐product congruity on in‐app interstitial advertising and the moderation of media‐context factors

Advertising has become one of the major sources of game apps revenues and interstitial ads, in particular, are the most used monetization method among the types of in‐game mobile ad formats. Interstitial ads overlaid on top of a mobile game app have more obvious advertising intent and a higher degree of forced exposure and perceived intrusiveness. This study examined how the degree of congruity (high vs. moderate vs. low) between the promoted products in interstitial ads and the mobile game app environment affects consumers’ responses. The moderating effects of media‐context factors (i.e., excited– or calm–happiness game types and game immersion) were further assessed. The results of two experiments revealed that game‐product congruity lead to better consumers’ responses toward ads and advertised products. The positive effects of game‐product congruity were more salient when consumers played calm–happiness games and were less immersed in the game. Theoretical implications on integrating perspectives across disciplines such as schema theory, happiness, and immersion within the media‐context framework, as well as practical suggestions are discussed.     

Effects beyond click-through: Incidental exposure to web advertising

While Web advertising tends to be based on a direct response model, there is a growing debate about the brand building potentials of Web ads. Click-through rates (CTR) are disappointingly low, but Web ads can be effective at brand building in an environment where Web ads are outside of consumers' attentional focus. With this in mind we conducted two experiments. The first experiment examined the effects of incidental exposure to banner ads. Subjects who were incidentally exposed to banner ads reported greater priming effects induced by implicit memory, more favorable A_ad, and greater likelihood for the advertised brand to be included in a consideration set over no exposure to the ad. These effects were found without significant improvement on explicit memories (i.e. recall and recognition) and click-through intention. The second experiment to assess the conditions conducive to incidental exposure examined two advertising strategies: format (animated vs. static) and placement (congruency vs. incongruency). Findings suggest that the level of congruency between an advertised product and Webpage content play significant roles in affecting consumers' responses to incidentally exposed banner ads. This paper examines the results of these two experiments before discussing the implications for the role of Web ads on brand building and directions for future research.     

The “You and I” of Happiness: Investigating the Long‐Term Impact of Self‐ and Other‐Focused Happiness‐Enhancing Activities

It is commonly known in the positive psychology literature that people who want to increase their happiness ought to engage in so‐called happiness‐enhancing activities. Building on this stream of research, work that emphasizes the duality of happiness (affect vs. meaning) is introduced in order to propose a new conceptualization of happiness activities. The new conceptualization distinguishes between self‐ and other‐focused happiness activities, and argues for the importance of other‐focused activities over self‐focused ones. Results from a six‐week long study show that other‐focused happiness activities consistently outperformed self‐focused ones in terms of raising participants’ levels of happiness. Although self‐focused happiness activities also increased happiness, by showing increases over time relative to participants’ baseline level, other‐focused happiness activities consistently outperformed such increases.     

The Effects of Vertical Individualism on Status Consumer Orientations and Behaviors

Values have been shown to explain advertising response and consumer behavior. Expanding the individualism–collectivism cultural framework, this research primarily focuses on the vertical individualism (VI: emphasizing independence and competition) value given its prevalence in the U.S. culture. Results of a survey among a national U.S. sample (a pilot study) showed that VI values were positively related to status consumer orientations, including tendencies to be brand conscious, buy branded products, and shop at upscale retail establishments. Moreover, in two experiments, the causal impact of VI values on status consumer orientations and behavior was demonstrated. Specifically, Study 1 showed that participants who were primed with VI values via a campus scenario (vs. control) indicated higher ratings of status consumption, brand‐buying behavior, and brand consciousness. Study 2 revealed further that an incidental exposure to a news story reflecting VI values (vs. horizontal collectivism values emphasizing cooperation and interdependence) influenced participants’ choices of a pen. Theoretical contributions to the study of values, advertising, and consumer orientations and practical implications for marketing are discussed.     

Fast‐food addiction and anti‐consumption behaviour: The moderating role of consumer social responsibility

This study aims to understand the drivers of fast‐food addiction and the role of consumer social responsibility (CSR) on the relationship between fast‐food addiction and anti‐consumption. Due to growing health concerns, an increasing number of consumers have been avoiding the consumption of fast food. Based on a sample of 539 respondents, all pertaining to generation Y in Pakistan, this study tests a model including addiction and anti‐consumption behaviour. Empirical results provide strong evidence that individual and sociocultural factors together with advertising practices influence consumers’ fast‐food addiction. Results also reveal that CSR moderates the relationship between fast‐food addiction and anti‐consumption behaviour. Interestingly, the present study pioneers the discussion on how addiction can drive anti‐consumption. The findings can help public policy makers and managers to understand consumers’ anti‐consumption tendencies and help promote healthier consumption habits.     

Influence of negative age stereotypes and anti‐aging needs on older consumers’ consumption‐coping behaviours: A qualitative study in South Korea

The number of older people in South Korea is growing dramatically, and the socio‐psychological needs of these people have begun to change from those of elderly people in the previous Confucian culture. The anti‐aging industry is popular among older South Korean consumers, and the Korean mass media have begun to broadcast new images of older people. The purpose of this research was to explore older Korean people's anti‐aging needs by examining their consumption‐related thoughts and behaviours in daily life. A theoretical framework is formulated to organize the coping processes and psychological mechanisms used by older Koreans to meet their anti‐aging needs. A total of 25 older Korean consumers were interviewed, and the qualitative data are analysed to determine the main causes and, attributes of, and reactions to their anti‐aging needs. The analysis of the in‐depth‐interviews shows that the older consumers’ negative age stereotypes act as a stressor and that their need for anti‐aging products is a defensive reaction. It is also found that older Korean consumers change their consumption behaviours to cope with negative age stereotypes and to satisfy their anti‐aging needs, and two types of coping behaviours (problem‐focused and emotion‐focused) are revealed. The results of this study contribute to the academic explanations of the anti‐aging phenomenon among older Koreans and enhance understanding of the perspectives of older Eastern consumers by revealing the existence of their anti‐aging needs.     

A Dual-Step and Dual-Process Model of Advertising Effects: Implications for Reducing the Negative Impact of Advertising on Children's Consumption Behaviour

Children are important targets of advertising campaigns from companies. However, children have been found to be particularly vulnerable to negative effects of advertising, and protecting children from these effects is an important task of consumer policy. Two important aspects have to be considered in this task. First, advertising affects judgements and behaviour not only during ad exposure but also in delayed consumption and purchase contexts. Second, advertising operates largely at an implicit level—during ad exposure as well as in consumption decisions. The current article introduces a dual-step (ad exposure vs. purchase/consumption) and dual-process (implicit vs. explicit) model of advertising effects on children. The model is based on a review of implicit advertising effects and implicit mechanisms of self-control. It implies that consumer policies intending to prevent undesired advertising effects should support interventions that strengthen advertising and purchasing literacy and, in addition, implicit self-control mechanisms in children. As self-control in consumption decisions is largely relevant for, and learned during, shopping and consumption, such interventions should focus on educating parents or other primary caregivers because they are the most likely persons to accompany children in such situations and have a great influence on children's implicit learning.     

Trading Off Fish Health and Safety: Female Decision‐Making Processes toward the Risk of Methylmercury in Fish

This study takes a qualitative, point‐in‐time look at 26 females’ decision‐making processes toward trading off the risks of mercury and the health benefits of a seafood diet. The data revealed five different decision‐making processes, with 17 of the 26 participants indicating their fish consumption patterns did not change. Of the nine who changed their fish consumption in some way, six specifically reduced the amount of tuna they ate. Similarly, participants who were most at risk—women of childbearing age and those with young children—expressed fish consumption changes more frequently than others, especially in the amount of tuna they consumed.     

Contextual priming of visual information in advertisements

Can the program context significantly influence the perception of an ad? Past advertising research has demonstrated contextual priming effects on the verbal part of an ad. Using public service and clothing advertisements, the present two experiments provide evidence for priming effects on visual components. Moreover, in extensive debriefing sessions, participants reported that they were not consciously aware of the influence of the contextual prime-suggesting the presence of implicit memory effects. Future research should focus on advertisements containing both verbal and visual information to better understand context influences on advertisements. 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Exploring the role of memory for self‐selected ad experiences: Are some advertising media better liked than others?

Advertising media are associated with different degrees of self‐selected versus intrusive ad experiences. The role of such media differences in attitudes toward advertising was explored in a nationwide survey. The survey provides a national picture of attitudes toward specific ad media ranging from advertising media that deliver highly self‐selected ad experiences (catalogs and business classifieds) to highly intrusive ones (TV). A total of 2,514 adults were surveyed regarding their opinions about ads in (1) TV, (2) radio, (3) catalogs, (4) business classifieds, (5) out‐of‐home, or (6) advertising in general. Media that allow for self‐selected experiences, where perceived interest in an ad is the basis for attention to it, were evaluated much more favorably than more intrusive advertising media. Catalogs and business classifieds elicited the most favorable opinions; TV advertising elicited the least, and these media differences generally cut across demographic lines. Also, although more educated and affluent consumers generally held less favorable views of advertising, preliminary results suggested that this did not hold true for media that allow for self‐selected processing. An additional study suggested that memory for advertisements plays a significant role in the evaluation of a self‐selected ad medium (catalogs). That is, consumers' strongest memories are for those ads to which they paid the most attention, and consequently these engaging ads have a disproportionate influence on opinions toward the ad medium. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

The effectiveness of fear appeals in ‘green’ advertising: An analysis of creative,consumer, and source variables*

This study focused on the effectiveness of fear appeal messages used to arouse a threat in green advertising. An experiment recruited 175 participants to test the influence of the advertising appeal (fear vs. non-fear appeal), source (for-profit vs. non-profit organizations), and involvement with the environment on attitude toward the ad (A_ad), attitude toward the product (A_p) and purchase intention (PI). Results revealed that a fear appeal in a green ad negatively affected A_ad and A_p and that participants who were highly involved with the environment were more likely to have positive attitudes toward the green ad and advertised green product as well as a stronger intent to purchase it. The source type in the green ad did not affect ad effectiveness and involvement with the environment did not moderate the effects of either appeal or source.     

Self‐regulation of unwanted consumption

The issue of consumption control is viewed from the perspective of self‐regulation in which successful attempts at controlling problem behaviors depend upon achieving motivational readiness. It is proposed that consumption control can be understood as a series of stage‐related processes that follow from theoretical accounts of self‐regulation contained in the transtheoretical model of change, and the model of action phases. In order to observe ongoing consumption‐control processes, a diary study, in which participants described their actions, thoughts, and feelings in attempting a personal consumption‐control project, was conducted. Diary entries were interpreted in light of theoretical stage‐related processes. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Nature Imagery in Non-Green Advertising: The Effects of Emotion,Autobiographical Memory,and Consumer's Green Traits

Images of pristine nature constitute frequent elements of visual advertising design. Research on the effectiveness of such imagery has been scarce, however. Which psychological processes are involved? Do all individuals react equally to nature advertising imagery? Based on environmental psychology theory, the present research analyzes the effectiveness of the use of nature imagery in non-green advertising and the underlying processes involved. We conduct three experimental studies, two with student samples and one with a representative population sample, to test the effects of visual advertising stimuli featuring nature versus urban and indoor scenery. Findings contribute to research in two ways: First, emotional ad responses that are similar to the feelings experienced in nature as well as the retrieval of positive autobiographical memories are identified as intervening processes by which nature advertising imagery increases attitude toward the ad (Aad) and brand (Abr). Second, results indicate these processes are moderated by consumers’ green traits, with green consumers being more susceptible to the persuasive effects of nature advertising imagery even though advertisements were non-green. The processes are further moderated by the accessibility of memory of past nature experiences. These findings enrich our knowledge on the effects of specific visual appeals and provide practical implications for visual advertising effectiveness.