Review - Roger A. Sedjo (2003): Economics of Forestry

Ashgate Publishing Limited, Gower House, Croft Road, Aldershot, Hants GU11 3HR, England (www.ashgate.com). 498 p. £ 100.00. ISBN 0-7546-2237-1 (hardback).Being one volume in the series of the International Library of Environmental Economics and Policy (T. Tietenberg and W. Morrison, gen. eds.), this book is a collection of some of the most significant journal essays in forest economics and forest policy. In compiling this volume, Roger Sedjo did a great service to the forest economics profession.This volume includes twenty-five essays originally published between 1849 and 1996 in a dozen journals, and one chapter from the Third Assessment Report of the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2001) which addresses the biological sequestration of carbon in terrestrial ecosystems. These are organized into four parts: the harvest rotation issue, timber supply, multiple-use and non-timber outputs, and global issues. An introduction essay to this volume, written by the editor, provides an overview of the major issues in forest resource management and discusses some the most important contributions to the forest economics literature.The eleven essays in the first part of the book provide a rather complete coverage of the most important contributions to the literature on optimal rotation age, which is a fundamental issue in forest management and forestry investment. Four of the essays (Faustmann 1849, Ohlin 1921, Bentley and Teeguarden 1965, and Samuelson 1976) address the basic formulation and interpretation of the optimal rotation model. Four essays (Löfgren 1985, Newman, Gilbert and Hyde 1985, Reed 1984, and Brazee and Mendelsohn 1988) extend the basic rotation model to examine the rotation age decision in the presence of deterministic trends and uncertainty in timber yield and price, respectively. Based on the Faustamnn rotation model, Klemperer (1976) and Chang (1982) examine the impacts of taxation on forest value and on the optimal rotation age. Koskela (1989) provides a detailed analysis of the impacts of taxation on timber harvest decisions under price uncertainty. What I feel missing in this part is a comparative statics analysis examining the impacts of changing economic parameters on the optimal rotation age.Part II includes five essays on economic analysis of long-run timber supply. Clawson (1979) reviews the historical development of forest resource and forest utilization in the United States. Vaux (1973) examines the long-run potential supply of timber from forest plantations in California. Berck (1979) investigates the difference in harvesting behavior between private forest owners and public managers. Lyon (1981) and Lyon and Sedjo (1983) examine the optimal exploitation of old-growth natural forests and the transition to steady state. While these essays all focus on the long-run timber supply in the United States, the methods developed and used in these papers could be applied for any other region. The exploitation of old-growth natural forests and the long-term availability of timber have been without doubt two major concerns in the United States. In many parts of the world, however, concerns about timber supply in the short-run have also had great influences on the development of forest policy. It would have been appreciated if a couple of essays addressing the short-run supply of timber had been included.Part III contains three essays dealing with the problem of multiple-use forest management. Gregory (1955) develops an economic framework for multiple-use management based joint production theory. Hartman (1976) examines the multiple-use rotation age decision. Swallow, Parks and Wear (1990) investigate the problem of non-convexities involved in multiple-use rotation age decisions. The merits of these essays lie in that they use rather simple models to demonstrate the importance of incorporating non-timber benefits in forestry decisions and the complexities of the multiple-use problem. In his 1976 essay, Hartman points out that in many situations management practices applied to one stand affect the value of non-timber outputs derived from the adjacent stands; such interdependence needs to be incorporated into multiple-use decision analysis. I certainly would like to find in this volume one or two essays examining the impacts of stand interdependence on the optimal decision. Another important issue in multiple-use management, which is not covered in this volume either, is the valuation of non-market priced outputs and services. Yet I believe that this omission is well motivated, for there are two separate volumes in this series devoted to non-market valuation methods (R. T. Carson, ed. Direct Environmental Valuation Methods, Volumes I and II).The seven essays in Part IV deal with a set of forest economic and policy issues related to global warming and biodiversity conservation. Parks and Hardie (1995) examine the cost-effective subsidies to convert marginal agricultural land to forests for the purpose of carbon sequestration. Hoen and Solberg (1993) analyze the potential and cost-effectiveness of increasing carbon sequestration in existing forests by changing forestry practices. van Kooten, Binkley and Delcourt (1995) examine the effect of carbon taxes and subsidies on the optimal rotation age. The chapter from the Third Assessment Report of IPCC (2001) provides a comprehensive review of the literature on the ecological, environmental, social and economic aspects of carbon sequestration in terrestrial ecosystems. While forests and forest management could play an important role in mitigating climate change, increasing level of atmospheric dioxide and climate change would inevitably affect the productivity of forest ecosystems, thereby could have significant impacts on future timber growth, harvest and inventory as well as carbon storage in forest ecosystems. Joyce et al. (1995) present a framework for analyzing the potential effects of climate change on the forest sector. The remaining two essays in this part examine the costs and benefits of biodiversity preservation, respectively. Montgomery, Brown and Adams (1994) estimate the marginal cost of preserving the northern spotted owl. Simpson, Sedjo and Reid (1996) examine the expected value of the marginal species as an input to pharmaceuticals.The editor points out in the introduction chapter that there are many other important contributions that are not included in this volume, some of these are mentioned, others not. In addition to the few omissions noted earlier, several important economic and policy issues such as uneven-aged stand management, deforestation, international trade, sustainable forestry, forest recreation, wildlife management and so on are not discussed. Moreover, none of the journal essays published since 1997 is selected. That there are many other important contributions does not mean the essays included in this volume are less important, however. While each forest economist may present a different list of the most important papers, most (if not all) of the essays in this volume would appear on anyone's list. I strongly recommend this book for research scientists and graduate students of forest economics as an essential addition to their reference library.     

云南松母树林基地发展对策研究——白马河林场案例

优良种子是提高林分质量的重要保障,因此,母树林经营在林业可持续发展中起着重要作用。探讨母树林经营在市场经济条件下的出路,已成为十分迫切的问题。文章对白马河林场云南松母林基地的经营现状进行了分析,找出了其中存在的问题,提出了以云南松母树林为核心、多元化发展、制度创新的发展对策。     

Analysis of individual private forestry in northern Spain according to economic factors related to management

In addition to being motivated by profit, the management decisions taken by non-industrial private forest (NIPF) owners involve other considerations beyond timber, such as non-timber goods and services, as well as factors that affect the level of timber output from the land. Ensuring and improving forest profitability to make NIPF management viable is one of the main challenges faced by this type of landowner. This study empirically explores and assesses management by NIPF owners, through analysing attributes of forest economics (investment in holdings, expenditure on planting and silviculture, public subsidies, along with timber and non-timber incomes). With the aim of predicting outcomes, a multiple regression model was also constructed to investigate and quantify the relationship between socioeconomic and holding factors, and the planting activities carried out by NIPF owners. For this, 103 resident forest landowners in a forest region in northern Spain were interviewed in person, during March 2004, about their commitment to and involvement in land management during the period 1999–2003. The results mainly revealed that attractive forest returns and favourable market conditions for timber production are significant factors for investment in and development of forestry, with personal and family conditions also being important factors in explaining the type of land management carried out. In particular, the multiple linear regression model for forest planting activity correctly explained 84.5% of the variability observed in the study population, indicating that both the investments in and the incomes from forestry play an important role in the activity, as does the size of the holding. The findings may be of interest in promoting public measures related to timber markets and economic incentives for forest management, which will allow landowners to develop economically viable practices, as well as enabling fulfilment of social and environmental demands for sustainable forestry and rural development.     

Optimizing joint production of timber and carbon sequestration of afforestation projects

Optimizing harvesting decisions has been a matter of concern in the forestry literature for centuries. However, in some tropical countries, growth models for fast-growing tree species have been developed only recently. Additionally, environmental services of forests gain importance and should be integrated in forest management decisions. We determine the impact of a joint production of timber and carbon sequestration on the optimal rotation of a fast-growing species in north-western Ecuador, comparing different optimization approaches and taking the latest developments of the Kyoto Protocol into account. We find that payments for carbon sequestration have substantial impact on the rotation length: in contrast to an optimum of 15 years when focusing on timber production only, joint production leads to a doubling of the rotation length, which means that timber harvest should be postponed until the end of the carbon project.     

Adaptive thinning strategies for mixed-species stand management with stochastic prices

This paper presents an efficient and flexible approach of determining optimal thinning strategies for mixed-species stands with stochastic timber prices. The approach aims to determine the optimal stock of each species to be maintained in the stand conditional on the observed stand state and timber prices, whereas thinning intensity is given by the difference between the existing and the optimal stocks. For demonstration purpose, the approach is applied to determine the optimal thinning strategies for an example stand of Scots pine (Pinus Sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies L. Karst.) in northern Sweden. The optimal stock of each species is formulated as a parametric function of stand age and stumpage prices of the respective species. A reservation price function is constructed to determine the optimal time of clearcut based on the observed stand state and timber prices. The parameters of the optimal stock-level and reservation price functions are determined by maximizing the expected present value of the stand. The results indicate that using the optimal stock-level function approach can significantly improve the thinning decisions for mixed species stand with stochastic timber prices.     

Preferences over the timing of forest resource use

The objective of this study is to evaluate preferences for time paths of outputs arising from alternative forest management practices. A discrete choice framework using logit and mixed logit models is used to evaluate stated choices by Public Advisory Committee members over attributes regarding inter-temporal forest management options. Results of the study indicate a relatively strong preference for physical sustainability, or even flow choices. However, respondents appear to be more accepting of uneven flows in recreation services than they are of uneven flows of timber harvests. Results also provide yet another illustration of a difference in implied rates of discount over the goods involved (i. e. timber versus recreation). The paper illustrates a mechanism for use in public involvement exercises that may identify inter-temporal preferences over forest management plans and strategies.     

The economic viability of smallholder timber production under expanding açaí palm production in the Amazon Estuary

Relatively little attention has been paid to the economic potentials and limitations of tropical timber production and management at smallholder scales, with the most relevant research focusing on community forestry efforts. As a rare tropical example of long-lasting small-scale timber production, in this study we explore the economics of smallholder vertically integrated timber use to better understand the activity in the context of its primary land use alternative in the Amazon Estuary, açaí palm fruit production. We use data from landowner and firm surveys, participatory monitoring of firms, and detailed forest and sawmill operation monitoring to devise financial returns models of smallholder timber micro firms and açaí palm fruit production. We then compare the economics of the two activities to better understand how differences may shape decisions at the small holder scale that impact current land use shifts in the region.     

社会化服务对农户林地规模经营行为的影响研究

以林业栽培技术服务为例,基于1342份实地调研数据运用IVProbit和倾向得分匹配(PSM)模型考察林业社会化服务对林地规模经营行为影响的程度和方向。结果表明:林业栽培技术服务能显著促进农户林地规模经营行为,但对不同林种的影响程度差异较大;林业工作站或技术推广站主导的栽培技术服务在促进农户规模化经营行为中承担主要角色,反映出林业社会化服务的市场化进程相对缓慢,市场化主体供应的服务未能很好地满足农户林地规模化经营的需求。因此,政府应当大力发展林业社会化服务,完善林业生产服务体系,扩大服务的受众面;培育多元化社会化服务主体,推动林业社会化服务专业化和精准化发展。     

速生丰产林经营经济效益敏感性分析

在建设项目经营效益评价体系中,对项目进行敏感性分析是评价项目经济效益的一个重要指标。根据林分的解析木材料和相应的林业技术经济指标,采用净现值法测算林木资产经营收益值,利用敏感性原理分析了不同因子对森林资源经营决策的反应灵敏度,识别风险大小,提出经营对策。分析结果表明:木材价格对杉木林经营经济效益的敏感度最强,其次为经营成本和林业税费,而营林成本、折现率和林地地租的敏感度不高。     

林业改革30年的进展与评价

在简述农村改革进展,总结农村改革成功基本经验的前提下,回顾了林业发展与改革的进展,对林业改革进行了总体评价与思考。林业改革计划经济体制的过程主要包括:推行政企分开,实行木材价格双轨制,实行林业生产承包制。林业构建市场经济体制的过程主要包括:实施森林分类经营,构建权利公平与效率优先相结合的林业发展机制;构建旨在促进防护林体系建设的激励机制;构建促进产业林业发展的竞争机制;构建公益林可持续经营的转移支付机制。林业改革由单一政府推动,逐步拓展到政府、市场、社区和国民共同推动,是中国林业改革进展的显著标志之一。中国林业改革的过程,也是产业发展生态化和生态建设产业化的过程。林业人应承担的责任是,通过集约经营把中国2.828亿hm2林业用地的生产力充分释放出来,基本解决13亿人的林产品需求,促进林区经济发展。     

试论林权概念的修正

林权作为一个法律概念,在林业实践中具有十分重要的地位。但长期以来,法学理论一直对林权内涵没有给予准确的界定。文章以此为立论基础,运用实证和比较分析的方法,通过对现行林业法和不同类型林权进行分析,将林权界定为自然人、法人或者其他组织对森林、林木、林地依法享有的占用、使用、收益或者处分的权利,在类型上包括森林、林木、林地所有权和森林、林木、林地使用权。     

福建三明市林业社会化服务体系调研报告

通过对福建三明市尤溪县和永安市林业社会化服务体系建设情况的调研发现,当地的林业部门创新服务形式,成立林业服务中心提供多种社会化服务,开通科技服务热线服务林农。集体林改后,林农林业投入增加明显,林业收入占总收入的三成以上。用材林联户经营增加,以大户经营为主,出现提供采伐服务的合作组织。经济林和林下经济的生产规模扩大,生产技术服务和产品销售以农户家庭为主体,合作社发挥作用并不明显,病虫害防治等公共服务不健全。建议:政府加强对合作社的支持和管理,发挥合作社在产前和产中服务林农的功能,促进合作社在带动林农增收中的作用;进一步完善林业服务中心建设,强化公共服务职能;完善基层林业技术服务体系,加强与林农合作社平台对接。     

南方集体林区木材供给行为研究

利用2000,2003,2005年福建省木材生产村级数据,通过Faustmann模型和Cobb-Douglas生产函数分析框架,考察市场化条件下林农木材生产经营决策行为,评价不同因素和政策可能的影响方向和效应。实证结果表明,价格、成本、资源状况、贴现率及林业政策均对木材的短期供给产生重要影响。政策方面,对林地制度改革的效果给予肯定,对限额采伐政策持怀疑态度,超限额砍伐现象的存在可能使其完全失去作用。     

21世纪的中国林业

近十几年来 ,我国林业工作取得了森林面积和蓄积双增长的良好势头 ,但形势依然严峻 ,特别是林地生产力低 ,林分和树种结构均存在不少问题 ,可采资源继续减少 ,林地占用严重等。解决这些问题的核心是不断增加森林面积和强化森林经营。于此 ,把林业建设建立在科技创新和制度创新基础上便成为改变我国林业发展态势的根本出路。     

Multiple-use forestry as a boundary object: From a shared ideal to multiple realities

Today, multiple-use (or multifunctional) forestry is one of the main concepts guiding European forestry. While there is wide acceptance of the overall concept, here is a lack of coherence in definitions, policies and practices. Such outcomes indicate that multiple-use forestry (MUF) may contain the essential properties of a “boundary object”, i.e. something that is robust enough to conceptually unite different interests, but at the same time is flexible enough to encompass different practices in line with local needs and conditions. This study sets out to explore the conceptualization and implementation of MUF as a boundary object, examining the overall trends at an international level, and scrutinising the national specifics in three case countries: Lithuania, the Netherlands and Sweden. The review of international literature finds no consensus on what MUF is, beyond combining two or more forest functions or uses. The case countries show widely different approaches to conceptualizing and implementing MUF, not least in terms of spatial scales for integrating or segregating various functions. The analysis indicates that we should not expect instrumentation of MUF toward uniform guidelines to shape forestry practices throughout Europe. Rather it will continue to serve the profession as a boundary object that serves as a mediating concept between various interests while being inclusive of a wide set of forestry practices.     

乡村振兴林农参与碳汇项目意愿研究

基于2016年福建省林权改革监测调研数据,利用二元Logistic模型,分析影响福建省欠发达山区林农参与碳汇林生产经营意愿的因素;贫困户与非贫困户对碳汇林项目经营意愿是否有差异及产生差异的原因。结果表明:贫困户与非贫困户对于碳汇林项目的响应程度有一定的区别,对于全体受访对象和非贫困户,是否参加过碳汇林生产培训、家庭林地面积、家庭林业总收入对提高其参与林业碳汇项目的意愿有显著的促进作用,而木材采伐销售收入反向影响其参与林业碳汇项目的意愿;对于贫困户,是否参加过碳汇林生产培训显著影响其参与林业碳汇项目经营的意愿。因此,提高贫困户和非贫困户的碳汇林经营意愿应各有侧重,在政策的制定上应给予贫困户一定的倾斜,调动贫困户的经营积极性,拓宽收入渠道,最终实现精准扶贫。     

曲线法的林业产业演进阶段测度研究——以黑龙江森工林区为例

介绍了黑龙江省森工林区林业产业发展的概况,使用1996～2010年40个国有林业企业的产值作为研究样本,运用Compertz生长曲线法,从产业组织和产业规模视角对黑龙江森工林区林业产业演进阶段进行测度,结果表明:黑龙江省林业产业在21世纪初经历了成熟期后,没有进入衰退期,而是进入下一产业生命周期的快速成长期。因此,提出积极培育合理利用森林资源、依靠科学技术转变林业经济增长方式、完善各项林业产业政策、建立健全林业产业发展制度等林区林业产业发展的对策。     

Adaptive management decision of agroforestry under timber price risk

In an effort to increase wood production and mitigate environmental problems, agro-forestry practices have emerged as a viable strategy in the Northern Plains of China, where one popular form of the agro-forestry system consists of fast-growing and high-yield plantation of poplar (populus) trees and the underwood planting of button mushroom (Agaricus bisporous). This paper examines adaptive management decision-making with stochastic dynamic programming under risk of timber price. Under the assumption of risk neutral preferences of the investors, the results suggest that the reservation price strategy remains optimal for the harvesting decision of agro-forests: when the timber price is higher than the reservation price, poplar trees should be harvested to end agro-forestry; otherwise, the trees should be retained. Numerical results are presented for sample agro-forest stands, which show that, with underwood planting, the reservation price for timber harvesting will be higher than that in pure forest.     

非农就业对家庭营林劳动力投工女性化的影响研究

根据劳动力转移新经济学理论和家庭内部劳动力分工理论,基于2018年浙江省14个县(市)681户营林调查户样本数据,运用Tobit模型分析了非农就业对营林劳动力女性化的影响。结果表明:非农就业对女性劳动力单位面积营林投工量和女性营林投工比例具有显著正向影响;非农就业对不同林种营林投入女性化有明显差异,对经济林农户家庭营林投工女性化有显著正向影响,而对用材林农户家庭营林投工女性化作用不明显。提出完善农村劳动力社会保障制度;加强农村女性劳动力营林生产技能培训;发挥女性劳动力的营林生产优势等建议。