Key research themes on governance and sustainable urban mobility

ABSTRACT

This article discusses the governance of sustainable urban development and in particular assesses the role of policy instruments to promote soft forms of governance associated with persuasion and coordination. These instruments are critically examined in terms of how they might help to promote greater policy integration and more sustainable development. Five types of strategies for promoting more sustainable transport policies are discussed: (1) policy indicators and targets, (2) benchmarking, (3) policy transfer and best practices, (4) policy experimentation/innovation, and (5) visioning/envisioning. The article is divided into four main parts. First, it presents an overview of recent trends in the governance of urban transport. Second, it examines the notion of policy integration, a central theme in discussions about sustainable transport and governance. Third, it considers how selected types of policy instruments might contribute to policy integration and sustainable urban development. Fourth, alongside the conclusions, suggestions are made for new research related to policy instruments and soft forms of governance in relation to urban transport.     

Identification and classification of public transport activity centres in Stockholm using passenger flows data

Urban geography could be characterized by analysing the patterns that describe the flows of people and goods. Measuring urban structures is essential for supporting an evidence-based spatial planning policy. The objective of this study is to examine how the spatial–temporal distribution of public transport passenger flow could be used to reveal urban structure dynamics. A methodology to identify and classify centres based on mobility data was applied to Metropolitan Stockholm in Sweden using multi-modal public transport passenger flows. Stockholm is known for its long-term monocentric planning with a dominant central core and radial public transport system. Strategic nodes along its radial public transport system have been a focus for development of sub-centres. Although the regional planning policy embraces a shift towards a polycentric planning policy, the results indicate that this has not been realized insofar.     

Cities and flows: re-asserting a relationship as fundamental as it is delicate

This paper emphasizes the relationship between cities and (transport) flows and critically explores the question of how this relationship has changed over time. It ties in with the legacy of Brian Hoyle’s work on port cities and discusses the general mechanisms and trajectories of urban development in the context of transport networks, particularly the tension between the concentration and dispersal of flows and their impact on places. Thus, the relationship between places and flows is considered both fundamental and delicate: that is, it is not only immanent to both, it also causes tensions and conflict. This is discussed in more detail in relation to two distinct cases: ports and airports. In response to related conflicts, the integration of flows in urban areas is pursued as a policy and planning strategy. However, the cases reveal that integration is difficult to achieve, due to complex systems’ dynamics and the individual logic of each sector, where integration is often accompanied by disintegration. Some light is also shed on a constructivist view of the subject matter. Finally, some ramifications for research and planning practices will be presented.     

Using accessibility measures to integrate land use and transport policy in Edinburgh and the Lothians

To ensure more effective integration of development and transport planning, new national planning policy guidance in the UK requires greater consideration of accessibility issues. Although quantitative accessibility analysis is common in research, the practical application of these techniques in land use planning has been rare, and assessment has been restricted to qualitative considerations. The strong policy focus on accessibility increases the need for robustness, but practical quantitative techniques are still evolving. This paper describes a structured approach to accessibility analysis, as part of the development of a new structure plan for Edinburgh and the Lothians, and demonstrates how an ‘integration index’ can be developed from accessibility measures to help compare alternative approaches.     

First steps towards cross-national transfer in integrating mobility management and land use planning in the EU and Switzerland

This paper is based on research carried out in an EU Framework project, concerning the better integration of mobility management (MM) with land use planning. The objective of the paper is to analyse how, and how far, policies in this field of action can transfer from one member state to another, and to compare this to the theory of policy transfer put forward by Dolowitz and Marsh (2000), using their theory as an analytical framework, but also informing that theory. After providing a definition of this form of integration, the paper explains how far MM and land use planning are currently integrated in the EU member and other states covered in the research (Sweden, Germany, Spain, Lithuania, Poland, Slovenia, Switzerland, the UK, as well as Ireland and the Netherlands). It then presents the results of planning simulation workshops in five of these countries, where a group of planning professionals from each state considered real development sites and how MM could be integrated with the development. It shows that there is scope for transfer but concludes that barriers such as language, differing planning traditions, and the problem of transferring a new policy idea within a country will limit the scope of policy transfer significantly. Nonetheless, it sees a role for EU projects of this nature in encouraging initial consideration of new policy ideas.     

How to plan for regional accessibility?

In order to address some of the shortcomings of traditional urban transportation planning, it is argued that a shift is needed from planning for mobility to planning for accessibility. Accessibility is a well-known and studied concept within the scientific literature. Its use in practice however is limited. This paper explores the ways of using the concept of accessibility in planning practice, with a special focus on the phase of policy design. Using the Amsterdam Region as an example, it is illustrated how simple accessibility measures can help planners with the design of integrated transport and land-use policies that call for different solutions than the traditional approach.     

Do institutional structures matter? A comparative analysis of urban carbon management policies in the UK and Germany

The paper addresses the important question of how institutional structures matter to the delivery of climate change policy for urban transport. It examines the strategic goals, policy tools in operation and initial progress towards carbon emission reduction in seven cities across the UK and Germany where different institutional structures exist. The UK has the presence of a strong national carbon target and strong hierarchical national–local government relationships whilst Germany has a more integrated system of local transport provision in a context where local and regional government is stronger. Our findings show that the carbon agenda has made very little difference to what is happening on the ground in the cities. Across all sites, progress is being made but largely through technological improvements which are being almost completely offset by population growth. Even in the more integrated city environments there has not be an additional stimulus to manage the demand for travel.Contrary to previous research therefore, we cannot conclude that institutional structures are paramount in delivering effective carbon reduction policies. The institutional structures in the UK and in Germany are not perfectly aligned to carbon management but, given the cross policy impacts of most transport interventions, this is perhaps inevitable. We can clearly conclude however that “better” structures are not sufficient to achieve the implementation of more effective carbon policies. Whilst institutional structures must matter, it is the broader governance environment and the resources and politics involved in transport policy that currently seem to dominate the importance of the carbon agenda and implementation paths that emerge.     

Accessibility,mobility, and realized travel behavior: Assessing transport disadvantage from a policy perspective

Limited accessibility and mobility can result in decreased quality of life and well-being, as well as social exclusion. In the United States (U.S.), rural and small urban communities suffer from transport disadvantage due to a lack of transit and a low density of employment, education, recreation, and other opportunities. While the international literature has produced a number of methods and frameworks to assess transport disadvantage and its impacts, the U.S. has lagged behind in providing pertinent studies. The objective of this paper is to establish comprehensive measures that can support the identification, evaluation, and quantification of transport disadvantage in U.S. rural and small urban communities, considering both data availability and the unique characteristics of the U.S. The concept of transport disadvantage in this paper denotes the disadvantage of a specific population group or area that results from a difficulty accessing transportation and/or opportunities. To achieve this objective, this paper develops a spatial multi-perspective approach to account for the three essential elements of transport disadvantage: accessibility, mobility, and realized travel behavior.The developed approach provides an assessment of transport needs and need gaps that can be of benefit to small urban and rural communities and their planning practices, as well as to transport providers. The analysis in this paper suggests that—from a policy perspective—a combination of measures that account for all three essential elements of transport disadvantage should be considered, because the results of each measure complement those of the others. This paper illustrates the proposed approach using a case study of Indiana. The findings suggest that a great part of rural and small urban Indiana presents a low density of opportunities and that transport-disadvantaged residents of such areas might experience the impacts of low transit supply as well. In addition, the findings suggest that residents of rural and small urban areas travel longer distances on their day-to-day activities.This paper attempts to advance the national research pertaining to transport disadvantage and provide a framework that can support planning and policy decisions at the community as well as at the state level.     

Urban structure,commuting burden,and employment status of labour forces in an Australian city

Understanding the productivity effects of worker commuting burdens is essential for appraisals of urban planning and investment strategies designed to improve urban productivity. However, the extant urban planning literature lacks systematic analysis of the influence of commuting costs on labour mobility, employment engagement, and productivity. This paper provides the first ever detailed analysis of mobility and commuting burdens for workers in a range of industries and occupational groups in Melbourne, Australia. Linking commuting burdens and measures of employment status in urban areas, this paper finds that the labour force in areas experiencing high commuting burdens exhibit lower levels of engagement with job markets. This research further reveals important variations in such relationships across diverse industry and occupation groups. The results provide urban policy makers with better information about urban transport and employment patterns, thus enabling them to investigate alternative approaches to investing in housing and transport infrastructure to reduce worker commuting burdens and improve economic performance.     

Looking over the horizon: Transport and reduced CO2 emissions in the UK by 2030

Transport is a major user of carbon-based fuels, and achievement of the targets set at the Kyoto Protocol and elsewhere means that the EU and national governments must reduce CO₂ emissions in all sectors, including transport. This paper reports on a recently completed study for the UK government on the options available to meet a 60% CO₂ reduction target by 2030 in the UK transport sector. The study follows a backcasting study approach, developing a business as usual baseline for transport emissions, and two alternative scenarios to 2030. Different policy measures are assessed and assembled into mutually supporting policy packages (PP). Although 2030 seems a long way ahead, action must be taken now if the targets for CO₂ reduction are to be met. The achievement of a carbon-efficient transport future, combined with holding travel levels at present levels, is likely to be very difficult. A major transformation in the way transport and urban planning is carried out is required. As transport and urban planners, we need to think very differently in tackling the new environmental and liveability imperative.     

Kingdon’s multiple streams model and automobile dependence reversal path: the case of Curitiba, Brazil

This paper draws on Kingdon’s multiple streams model of problems, policies and politics to explain the process of automobile dependence reversal path in urban transport planning in Curitiba, Brazil. What significantly contributed to the automobile dependence reversal path was a diverse coalition of actors who mobilized capabilities and structures to exploit policy windows at different periods of time and even tried to trigger policy windows within the milieu of problems, policies and politics of Curitiba to implement policies on public and non-motorized transport. The Curitiba experience shows that addressing the embedded problem of automobile dependence sometimes requires innovative and strategic responses within the intricate political, policy and urban planning dynamics of a city.     

Research agenda for low-carbon mobility: Issues for New World cities

ABSTRACT

Low-carbon mobility (LCM) features strongly in debates about the sustainability of cities and their resilience in the face of demographic, economic, and climate change. Transport is a major source of carbon emissions and there are indications that these continue to increase, despite the considerable recent advances in vehicle, engine, and fuel technologies. Reducing carbon emissions from transport may become more difficult, not easier. A particular issue relates to the New World cities, typified by those of North America and Australasia, which largely developed from the latter half of the nineteenth century onward and whose transportation systems were largely based around private vehicle ownership and usage. These cities are typically composed of low-density, dispersed suburbs, which are highly car dependent and resource and carbon emission intensive. This article develops a research agenda directed at determining and testing policy and planning measures relevant to the quest for low carbon mobility in New World cities. It suggests a rich agenda for essential research on LCM. Much of this agenda falls within the realm of the integration of transport and land use, with attention to urban design details to enhance the perceptions of and opportunities to use low carbon transport alternatives. Research topics identified for LCM research include (1) urban design and land use–transport integration (LUTI), (2) low carbon mobility policies directed at achieving widespread behavior change, (3) opportunities for new technology and its application, including requirements for systems and infrastructure, and (4) analysis and tools for informed decision making, including modeling, measurement, visualization, and especially assessment.     

Access to the city: Mobility patterns,transport and accessibility in peripheral settlements of Dar es Salaam

This paper is concerned with access to the city for urban residents living in the periphery of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. The paper presents an analysis of the mobility practices of residents and investigates the mobility constraints they experience in relation to the limited accessibility provided by the urban transport system. The paper draws upon qualitative interviews with residents in the periphery as well as recently collected travel speed data and offers a unique combination of testimony with GIS-based modelling of overall accessibility. A central finding is the overall importance of regular mobility and access to the city for residents in the periphery. Regular mobility is an ingrained part of residents' livelihood strategies. The majority of households rely on one or more members regularly travelling to central parts of the city in relation to their livelihood activities. The analysis reveals a widespread, near-to-universal, dependence on motorized transportation, with the vast majority depending on public transport. Raster-based modelling of overall accessibility provides an indication of the very high travel times endured by residents in the periphery. The analysis identifies and distinguishes between three overall mode types: 1) Private car, 2) public transport and 3) motorcycle/car combined with public transport. While private cars appear marginally faster, differences in travel times are actually limited. This suggests that travel times are less influenced by mode of transport than by road and traffic conditions and highlights how accessibility problems of peripheral settlements are not easily understood separately from the general dysfunctions of the overall mobility system of city.     

Planning for sustainable accessibility: The implementation challenge

The ‘Network City’ planning strategy espouses sustainable accessibility. The aim is to re-orient the existing urban structure by focussing development at places with high accessibility in order to support an effective public and private transport system. The implementation phase calls for changes to planning practices: the need for public transport planning and development change to be mutually supportive; the need for road network planning and road design to place land use-transport integration as the core objective rather than traffic efficiency and for the need to stage development according to planned population and employment targets. This must take place within a new participatory approach. All this requires planners to gain new skills. To achieve this the system of planning must remain strong.     

Night-time mobilities and (in)justice in London: Constructing mobile subjects and the politics of difference in policy-making

The growing interest in urban night-time economies and night-time transport policies presents an important context in which to examine how mobility justice is conceived and operationalised in policy-making. Literature on transport exclusion and transport justice documents the disadvantages experienced by different social groups and advances theoretical frameworks for distributive justice and transport accessibility. However, this literature has rarely considered the politics of whether and how mobility difference is recognised and planned for in transport policy, including issues of deliberative justice (participation) and epistemic justice (knowledge production). To address these research gaps, this paper engages with Sheller's (2018) theorisation of mobility justice and critically analyses the construction of mobile subjects in policy discourse on night-time mobility. We analyse policy documents part of night-time policy for Greater London to examine the extent to which the differentiated night-time mobilities across social categories (gender, age, ethnicity, income, etc.) are recognised – in other words, how the ‘politics of difference’ play out in transport policy-making. Findings show that the discursive construction of mobile subjects in London's night-time policy distinguishes between workers, consumers, and transport users, yet, these broad categories poorly account for differentiated mobility needs and practices. Publicly available data on differentiated night-time mobilities in London does not inform current policy discourse, obscuring disadvantages experienced by different groups of people moving through the city at night, and thus limits the capacity of existing policy interventions to address mobility injustices. These findings reaffirm the need for transport research to move beyond distributive justice and accessibility analysis, towards exploring the potential of thinking about distributive and epistemic justice for challenging the status quo of transport policy.     

Planning for urban tourism: a critique of borough development plans and tourism policy in London

The paper presents a critique of tourism policy in London in the context of local environmental plans and central government policy for tourism and hotel development. Rationales for local authority tourism policies are assessed in relation to city‐level planning imperatives and local land‐use plan formulation. A comparative analysis of borough development plans and the treatment of tourism is based on a survey of London's 33 unitary authorities. The paper presents a World City case study of urban tourism from the position of the environmental planning process and in the light of the highly concentrated distribution of hotel provision and tourist activity in London. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Achieving sustainable urban transport mobility in post peak oil era

Peak oil is the term used to describe the point at which global oil production will peak and thereafter start to decline. Recognising that transport uses a significant portion of global energy, the shortage of fossil fuel in post peak oil era will pose a global challenge in the transport sector. The paper presents an assessment of international research to illustrate the possible time frame of peak oil. It investigates the key implications of the oil shortage that threaten to render the urban transport system of Australia ineffective. Synthesis of documented research evidence suggests three major implications in the urban transport sector: (1) a reduction of mobility for individuals, (2) an increase of transport disadvantage, and (3) a disruption of urban freight movement. In addition, the paper explores strategies to cope with the devastating effects of the shortage of the fossil fuel in the post peak oil era. A number of strategies to achieve sustainable mobility in the future urban transport system are presented. These strategies are summarised into three main themes: (1) a mode shift to alternate transport modes, (2) an integration of land use and transport planning, and (3) a global technical effort for alternate fuels and vehicles. It is expected that a concerted global effort in this regard can have a far-reaching effect in achieving sustainability in urban transport mobility.     

Scatters and clusters in time and space: implications for delivering integrated and inclusive transport

This paper calls for a refinement in the literature on social exclusion/inclusion, and an alteration in the counterpart policy practices, in order to take account of ‘scatter’ and ‘cluster’ dimensions in the patterning of transport deprivation. Disaggregating social exclusion and inclusion data to enable the identification of scatters and clusters is key to the development of appropriate transport planning strategies. The degree to which lack of mobility is scattered or clustered can have profound implications for the ways in which time and space are treated by policy.     

Microstories of everyday mobilities and opportunities in Bogotá: A tool for bringing capabilities into urban mobility planning

The Capabilities Approach is gaining relevance as a theoretical approach that can contribute to consider issues of mobility and justice. The approach helps to better understand how everyday urban mobility can contribute to individuals' capabilities, that is, their ability to freely be and do what one has reason to value. However, in relation to mobility the Capabilities Approach is still missing operational tools that can consider individual specificities and go beyond aggregate evaluations of urban transport systems. Drawing on a research project on urban mobility and human capabilities in Bogotá, the paper discusses how microstories of individual everyday mobilities could be a suitable analytical tool for describing the plural relationship between mobilities and capabilities. Microstories, defined as short accounts of personal everyday mobility experiences, help to account for the features that facilitate or impede individual mobility, and consider the manifold uses of mobility as achieved by each person, according to one's individual choices. The paper discusses three potential contributions of microstories: integrating established evaluative approaches, such as accessibility measures; providing elements for the design of more effective policy actions; expressing features of the mobility experience that, despite their relevance for personal preferences and behaviours, are difficult to include within aggregate evaluations. The usability of microstories as interpretative and operational tools is examined in the light of the obtained results and in relation to policy making processes.     

The early days of shared micromobility: A social practices approach

Urban mobility may be entering a period of substantive changes as new transport technologies (facilitated by developments in electrification, automation, and web 2.0 technologies for distributed, real-time transactions) provide new possibilities for movement. The recent arrival of shared electric scooters in some cities has been the topic of much conversation, particularly in relation to appropriate spaces for e-scooter use, and the safety of e-scooter users and pedestrians. This paper, however, takes a wider look at the early days of shared micromobility in New Zealand cities. Mobility is intricately connected to the wider social and cultural configurations of daily life, including its power relations, equalities and inequalities, and the spatial relations between people, places and opportunities. This paper draws on an online survey completed by residents of four New Zealand cities in which shared electric scooters became available in late 2018 or early 2019. Using a social practices approach, it explores early changes in the materials, competencies, and meanings associated with urban mobility as a response to the electric scooter trial. It discusses the disruptive potential of these changes, both for urban transport and for wider social relations.