Is cultural distance a bane or a boon for cross-border acquisition performance?

Literature has offered diverse explanations of the relationship between cultural distance and acquisition performance, pointing to both positive and negative effects. In this paper, we build on these findings and attempt to reconcile the conflicting research streams. We suggest that the effect of cultural distance on cross-border acquisition performance depends on the level of acquisition experience of the acquirer. More internationally experienced acquirers are more likely to be aware of cross-border acquisition pitfalls and are more skilled at resolving acquisition related conflicts; this allows the acquirer to benefit from cultural differences, ultimately leading to higher acquisition performance. Performance of culturally distant cross-border acquisitions launched by inexperienced acquirers is lower because such acquirers are unlikely to have a culturally sensitive anti-conflict action plan, which affects the ability of the acquirer to benefit fully from cultural distances. Albeit we stipulate that experience with domestic acquisitions affects positively the relation between cultural distance and acquisition performance, we do not find support. We empirically test our model with a comprehensive database of 1223 cross-border acquisitions launched during the 2009–2010 period.     

Cross-Border Mergers & Acquisitions Policy in Service Markets

We provide facts showing that in service markets: (i) restrictions on foreign direct investment (FDI) are under reform, (ii) cross-border Mergers & Acquisitions dominate as the entry mode of FDI, and (iii) there is often a high market concentration. Based on these facts, we present a model for analyzing cross-border merger and acquisition policy in liberalized service markets taking into account efficiency and market power effects. Our findings suggest that a merger policy, but not a discriminatory policy towards foreigners, seems warranted. Moreover, policies ensuring competition for domestic target firms seem warranted. In this vein, harmonization of the EU takeover regulations may particularly benefit assets owners in countries with many target firms.     

The role of domestic and cross-border venture capital investors in the growth of portfolio companies

This paper studies how the presence of cross-border as opposed to domestic venture capital investors is associated with the growth of portfolio companies. For this purpose, we use a longitudinal research design and track sales, total assets and payroll expenses in 761 European technology companies from the year of initial venture capital investment up to seven years thereafter. Findings demonstrate how companies initially backed by domestic venture capital investors exhibit higher growth in the short term compared to companies backed by cross-border investors. In the medium term, companies initially backed by cross-border venture capital investors exhibit higher growth compared to companies backed by domestic investors. Finally, companies that are initially funded by a syndicate comprising both domestic and cross-border venture capital investors exhibit the highest growth. Overall, this study provides a more fine-grained understanding of the role that domestic and cross-border venture capital investors can play as their portfolio companies grow and thereby require different resources or capabilities over time.     

Board participation,toeholds and the cross-border effect

Research shows that the bid announcement return (BAR) of the acquiring firm is lower for cross-border than domestic acquisition announcements. The current lack of economically based explanations for this effect, labeled the cross-border effect by Moeller and Schlingemann (2005), motivates our study. We use unique hand-collected corporate governance data to study how the relationships between acquiring and target firms prior to a bid announcement affect the cross-border effect. Our tests show that non-operating associations between the acquiring and target firms, in the form of board participation and toeholds, have a positive effect on the BAR. The cross-border effect disappears when we control for board participation and toeholds. Thus, we suggest that the cross-border effect is at least partly a consequence of information asymmetries and the adverse selection problem that they generate.     

Why do Chinese firms tend to acquire strategic assets in international expansion?

More Chinese companies are using cross-border merger and acquisition (M&A) to access and source strategic assets so as to address their competitive disadvantage. However, there is lack of research on the rationale for such strategic-asset-seeking M&A. This paper intends to address this critical issue from an institutional perspective. Building on institutional theory, we propose a model of resource-driven motivation behind Chinese M&A. To shed light on the explanatory power of this institutional framework, we draw on a multiple-case study of three leading Chinese firms—TCL, BOE and Lenovo. By arguing that cross-border M&A from Chinese firms represents a means to acquire strategic assets is the logic of Chinese unique institutional environment, this study is of importance not only to stimulate possible theoretical extensions but also to draw implications to other emerging market firms.     

Institutional investors and cross-border mergers and acquisitions: The 2000–2018 period

Using a sample of mergers and acquisitions (M&As) from 26 countries over 2000–2018, we find that domestic institutional investors facilitate both domestic and cross-border M&As. The facilitation effect is more pronounced for domestic than cross-border M&As. When the acquirer country has greater financial freedom or better investor protection than the target country, domestic institutional investors facilitate cross-border M&As more effectively. As Ordinary Least Squares regressions are not the best approach regarding cross-border M&As, we confirm that the main results are robust to Zero-inflated Poisson regressions. Foreign institutional investors' influence on cross-border M&As is stronger when the sample excludes the United States.     

It's no longer mine: the role of brand ownership and advertising in cross-border brand acquisitions

Although cross-border brand acquisitions are increasingly common in the global marketplace, research on how consumers respond to them is limited. Building on social identity and psychological ownership theories, we introduce the concept of brand ownership to the advertising literature, and show its negative effects on consumer reactions to a brand acquisition. Furthermore, we demonstrate that consumers’ disidentification (i.e., an oppositional motivation) with an acquiring country moderates the negative effect of consumers’ brand ownership on consumer attitudes after a brand acquisition. The results reveal that consumers with high levels of brand ownership develop more negative post-acquisition brand attitudes when a brand is acquired by a country with which consumers strongly disidentify (i.e. dissociative vs. out-group). Furthermore, our research introduces the concept of a brand ownership appeal in advertising, and demonstrates that it is an effective advertising strategy in enhancing post-acquisition brand attitudes for consumers with high levels of brand ownership. Important theoretical and managerial advertising implications conclude this research.     

Cherries for sale: The incidence and timing of cross-border M&A

This paper develops a model of cross-border M&A activity that features firm-level productivity shocks and endogenous export activity. We show that foreign firms will be relatively more attracted to targets in the domestic country that had high productivity levels that induced them to invest in large export networks several years prior to acquisition, but subsequently experienced a negative productivity shock (i.e., cherries for sale). From the theory we derive a dynamic panel binary choice empirical model to predict cross-border M&A activity, and find strong evidence for our hypotheses connecting the evolution of firm-level productivity to the ultimate targets of cross-border acquisitions using French firm-level data.     

Cherries for sale: The incidence and timing of cross-border M&A

This paper develops a model of cross-border M&A activity that features firm-level productivity shocks and endogenous export activity. We show that foreign firms will be relatively more attracted to targets in the domestic country that had high productivity levels that induced them to invest in large export networks several years prior to acquisition, but subsequently experienced a negative productivity shock (i.e., cherries for sale). From the theory we derive a dynamic panel binary choice empirical model to predict cross-border M&A activity, and find strong evidence for our hypotheses connecting the evolution of firm-level productivity to the ultimate targets of cross-border acquisitions using French firm-level data.     

Board experience and value creation in cross-border acquisitions: The role of acquirer and target country institutions

Our study investigates the effects of board acquisition experience on value creation in cross-border acquisitions and the dependence of this relationship on acquirer and target country institutions. We draw on cross-border acquisition research and institution-based corporate governance research to argue that the effect of board acquisition experience depends on the institutional characteristics of the acquirer and target countries and on cultural differences between these two countries. Based on 1775 cross-border acquisitions of U.S. and European acquirers, we show a positive effect of board acquisition experience on the announcement returns of cross-border acquisitions, which is even stronger when the target country’s takeover regulations are less friendly and when the target and acquirer countries are culturally more distant.     

Revisiting capital account convertibility in the aftermath of the currency crises

While there are a number of theoretical arguments in favour of capital account convertibility, or free cross-border capital mobility, in the real world cross-border trade in financial assets can in fact reduce welfare due to the effects of domestic distortions. The following paper examines the causes of the Asian financial crises of the late 1990s in this light and presents some of the lessons that would be instructive for a more effective implementation of capital account convertibility.     

Impact of the Financial Crisis on Banking Acquisitions: A Look at Shareholder Wealth

This paper examines the influence of the 2007–08 financial crisis on value creation for acquirer’s shareholders in the banking industry using a sample of 883 deals over 2004–12. Applying an exploratory and top-down approach, banking acquisitions are considered at the global level, narrowing the analysis step by step to consider domestic versus cross-border acquisitions. Then cross-border deals are split based on the economic development of the acquirer and target countries. It is observed that only acquisitions involving emerging-economy acquirers and developed-economy targets generate positive and significant returns to shareholders after the crisis. Major changes in the global acquisition landscape are also observed since 2007, with emerging-economy banks increasing their acquisition activity, both nationally and internationally.     

中国企业跨国并购交易完成率决定因素分析

本文通过对2000~2015年期间804起中国企业宣告的跨国并购交易作为样本研究发现,并购目标的选择会影响中国企业跨国并购交易完成的可能性。从宏观层面来看,东道国/地区的制度质量与跨国并购交易成功的可能性正相关。从目标方企业特征来看,作为目标企业,如果是私人目标会增加跨国并购交易完成的可能性。从交易特征来看,如果收购采用现金支付方式会减少中国企业跨国并购交易完成的可能性。     

跨国收购失败教训何在——明基并购西门子案例剖析

随着经济全球化的发展,跨国并购浪潮正在席卷全球。许多优秀的中国企业纷纷投身于并购浪潮之中,然而,由于异地民族文化差异,由文化差异带来的文化冲突,严重影响并购整合过程。因而,跨国并购后实现有效的跨文化整合已成为中国企业的当务之急,企业跨文化经营管理的有效性命题被提上议程。     

电子商务平台出口影响因素及其溢出效应——基于消费者关键词搜索视角的研究

跨境电子商务平台上汇集了消费者对商品的"碎片化"需求,具体表现为消费者搜索大量表述各异的关键词。搜索同一个关键词的消费者具有相同的需求从而形成了特定的细分市场,因此本文从依据关键词划分的细分市场角度出发,在价格和评分的基础上引入搜索排名作为电商平台出口影响因素,由于跨境电子商务平台上广泛存在着交叉销售行为,本文还分析了上述影响因素对企业其他商品出口的溢出效应。研究结果表明:商品的排名提升、价格下降和评分提高不仅能增加其细分市场出口量,还能增加企业其他商品的出口量;其中商品排名提升的影响是通过增加商品点击量和提高消费者购买意愿来实现的;在消费者有品牌偏好或明确购买目标的细分市场中,商品排名的作用会有不同程度的减弱;当商品和消费者需求越匹配时,商品排名提升对促进出口的作用越大。     

交通可达性、边界效应与中国跨境贸易发展——基于沿边地区的空间计量分析

降低城市边界效应,对于促进要素流动、推动跨境贸易发展具有重要意义。本文基于空间经济学的分析框架,构建了交通可达性和边界效应对沿边地区进出口贸易影响的理论模型,利用2000—2013年中国沿边地区76个地级市与毗邻国家的贸易数据及自身内贸数据,以跨境可达性来反映沿边城市的交通可达性并进行实证分析。结果证实:沿边城市与周边地区的进出口贸易存在显著的空间相关性,如果忽略空间效应的影响,则会带来边界效应的高估;交通可达性、经济规模对于跨境贸易发展发挥着显著的正向影响,而边界效应和城市化率则具有负面效应;交通可达性对沿边城市进口贸易的影响具有明显的空间外溢效应,但对其出口贸易的影响仅具有直接效应。区域异质性分析结果表明,交通可达性的提高有利于降低边界效应的不利影响,且对经济基础薄弱的西南地区改善作用最大。为更好地促进沿边城市的跨境贸易高质量发展,应当加快跨境交通网络建设,不断提升边境地区城市化质量,并实施差异化的沿边开放政策。     

The determinants of cross-border equity flows

We explore a new panel data set on bilateral gross cross-border equity flows between 14 countries, 1989-1996. We show that a “gravity” model explains international transactions in financial assets at least as well as goods trade transactions. Gross transaction flows depend on market size in source and destination country as well as trading costs, in which both information and the transaction technology play a role. Distance proxies some information costs, and other variables explicitly represent information transmission, an information asymmetry between domestic and foreign investors, and the efficiency of transactions. The geography of information is the main determinant of the pattern of international transactions, while there is weak support in our data for the diversification motive, once we control for the informational friction. We broaden the scope of our results by presenting some evidence linking the results on equity transactions to equity holdings.     

Time to Do the Job Properly—The Case for a New Approach to EU Consumer Legislation

Following 25 years of legislative activity in the field of consumer law, the EU has proposed major reforms to the consumer law acquis. Existing legislation is largely based on directives harmonizing aspects of national consumer laws. This paper argues that a more appropriate approach for EU consumer law would be legislation in the form of a regulation which is applicable to cross-border transactions only. This argument will consider the constitutional constraints of the EU Treaties, before examining the case for a cross-border-only measure. It will be argued that the cross-border approach is preferable, because it would provide clearer benefits for consumers seeking to buy goods/services across borders, while not upsetting domestic law unnecessarily, in particular in the context of e-commerce.     

Small‐Dollar Credit Lending: The Effect of Financial Burden on Personal Asset Misvaluation

Small‐dollar credit lenders offer consumers quick access to cash in the form of products, such as pawn loans. The consumers who tend to use these small‐dollar credit products are more likely to face financial burden and potential for default—particularly when loan‐to‐value ratios are high. However, the cognitive effects of financial burden can impair financial decision making. If financial literacy educators are to empower consumers, more consumer‐centric evidence is necessary to determine how small‐dollar credit consumers make decisions when purchasing loans. One critical decision consumers make is accepting how lenders value their assets in exchange for credit. Three lab studies assess how consumers facing financial burden value their own assets. We find that, due to cognitive constraints of financial burden, consumers can undervalue functional assets and overvalue symbolic assets. Importantly for financial literacy efforts, however, we show that framing a symbolic asset in terms of other‐benefit construal helps attenuate asset overvaluation.     

The impact of cross border E-tailer's return policy on consumer's purchase intention

Based on the signaling theory, cue utilization theory and halo effect theory, this paper establishes a theoretical model of the impact of return policy leniency on consumer purchase intention in the context of cross-border e-commerce (CBEC). The model is verified by the experimental data. Moreover, the mediating role of perceived quality and perceived risk and the moderating effects of port of shipment and product traceability code are significant. The results show that in the CBEC scenario, when the online retailers adopt a lenient return policy, the consumers have higher perceived quality and lower perceived risk, which in turn leads to a higher intention to purchase; When a consumer purchases the product which ships from domestic bonded warehouse or a product without a product traceability code present, the effect of the leniency of return policy on perceived quality and perceived risk is stronger.