Budgets for research and development: an empirical study of 69 Swedish firms

It was found that, as a rule, firms decide upon individual projects and do not specify in advance a fixed level for the R & D budget. The decision about individual R & D projects and/or the R & D budget was most frequently made by the president of the company. The implication of our results for various kinds of research on the economics of R & D are discussed. Questionnaires were sent out to 124 large Swedish firms, asking how they determined budgets for research and development (R & D) and who decided about the size of these budgets. 94 firms answered and 69 of these undertook R & D.     

Agricultural credit problems and policies during the transition to a market economy in Central and Eastern Europe

This paper assesses the problems of financing Central and Eastern European agriculture during the present transitionary period and the role of government in this process. Initially the paper looks at why credit markets work imperfectly, even in well developed market economies, focusing on problems related to asymmetric information, adverse selection, moral hazard, credit rationing, optimal debt instrument choice and initial wealth. It shows why these and related problems may cause transaction costs to be so high that credit rationing and high interest rates are rational and efficient responses by lenders to the imperfect information problems of the agricultural sector. A series of specific, transition-related issues are then discussed which have worsened these problems within the Central and Eastern European agricultural sector. The potential roles of governments in solving these issues and actual observed interventions by Central and Eastern Europe governments through credit subsidies, loan guarantees and specialised agricultural lending institutions are analysed. Finally, the paper discusses how financial market innovations have solved some of the credit market problems and derives the implications for government policies.     

Financing behaviour of R&D investment in the emerging markets: the role of alliance and financial system

This paper examines the financing behaviour of research and development (R&D) investments in emerging markets. Drawing on institutional theory and using panel data of generalized methods of moment estimation for a sample of 302 firms from 20 countries during the period 2003–2015, we find that emerging market firms tend to use internal funds for financing R&D investments. Interesting results emerged when the sample was divided as alliance and non‐alliance firms, and bank‐based and market‐based financial systems. The results show that R&D financing behaves differently for alliance and non‐alliance firms. Alliance firms use both internal and external funds for R&D investments, while non‐alliance firms do not use external funds. We also document that a country's financial system influences the choice of available sources of finance. Firms from countries that follow a bank‐based financial system tend to rely on external funds while firms from countries that follow a market‐based financial system depend more on internal funds for financing R&D investments. This study is important as it provides new evidence on financing R&D investments in emerging countries taking into account the institutional arguments of financing choices, and so should guide stakeholders about appropriate sources of R&D financing.     

Dependency of organic farms on direct payments in selected EU member states: Today and tomorrow

This paper examines the development of the role of government support in the financial situation of organic farms in selected Western and Eastern European countries, contrasting dependency on direct payments with that of conventional farms and assessing the impact of foreseeable changes in the political and economic environment. The results show that direct payments play an important role in the financial viability of organic farms in both Western and Eastern European countries. The level of specific support for organic farming is put into perspective, as other support payments and market returns contribute larger shares to total farm revenue in all the countries analysed. Modelling analyses show that support payments will continue to play an important role in the profitability of organic farms in Western Europe after implementation of the 2003 reform of Common Agricultural Policy in the EU. For organic farmers in Eastern European countries, the importance of support payments increases strongly with EU accession, as first pillar payments are introduced and environmental payments are expanded significantly.     

A mathematical model for projecting the demand for scientists and technologists in national R & D institutes

This paper presents an analytical framework for man-power planning which is being developed as an aid to projecting the demand for scientists and technologists in India. It is presented in the hope that it might be of interest to people concerned with this issue In other developing countries. In using the model the main problem is that of measuring the output in the R & D institutes. In attempting this it is inevitable that some degree of subjective judgment is involved. The method adopted is described in the paper, and using a very simple input—output type of matrix and data taken from five-year plans, some preliminary results have been obtained which enable an assessment to be made of the demand for various kinds of scientists and technologists in the national R & D institutes in India.     

Economic growth,telecommunications development and productivity growth of the telecommunications sector: Evidence around the world

This paper studies the relationships between economic growth, telecommunications development and productivity growth of the telecommunications sector in different countries and regions of the world. In particular, this study assesses the impact of mobile telecommunications on economic growth and telecommunications productivity. The results indicate that there is a bidirectional relationship between real gross domestic product (GDP) and telecommunications development (as measured by teledensity) for European and high-income countries. However, when the impact of mobile telecommunications development on economic growth is measured separately, the bi-directional relationship is no longer restricted to European and high-income countries. This study also finds that countries in the upper-middle income group have achieved a higher average total factor productivity (TFP) growth than other countries. Countries with competition and privatization in telecommunications have achieved a higher TFP growth than those without competition and privatization. The diffusion of mobile telecommunications services is found to be a significant factor that has improved the TFP growth of the telecommunications sector in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE).     

我国企业R＆D投入与R＆D资源获取的摩擦力——基于问卷调查的研究

文章以我国企业转型升级和R＆D价值创造为基础,通过问卷研究了我国企业R＆D投入的困境与R＆D资源获取的成本关系,信息不对称与R＆D融资渠道的摩擦力。得到的主要结论是：对于粗放型发展中成长的＂虚胖＂企业,需要加大研发来瘦身;企业寄期望的R＆D融资渠道并不畅通,原因是严重的信息不对称导致信用缺失,出现很大的摩擦力。对此,企业需要首先通过自有资金,分步骤地通过R＆D价值创造来取得不同阶段R＆D融资的信用证明,并通过研发合作网络,才能有效地降低获取R＆D资源的成本并不断地积累企业研发价值创造的知识。     

The changing face of research anddevelopment in the public sector

This paper examines the changes that have occurred in the management and scale of R & D, in the contextof the'gas industry's experience. As a resultof the discovery o f North Sea gas and new and expanding operations, R & D has become larger, more central, and thus more integrated into and accountable to the organization as a whole. This has resulted in greater centralization and planning administered according to the ‘sponsorship’ principle. These changes have highlighted the problems of R & D choice and the comparison of commercial and non-commercial objectives in a public sector industry. The unique constraints under which nationalized industries operate and their commitment to the ‘public interest’ as well as to commercial goals, are discussed. These bear upon the way in which R & D decisions not amenable to cost/benefit analysis (such as the balance between long and short term work) are made. It is emphasized that these decisions are made by the industry as a whole and that R & D must thus be seen to be complying with industry objectives. The example of British Gas R & D Planning is used to show how ‘sponsorship’ operates and its values for R & D and the restof the industry. Comparison with other public sector industries indicates that there is no one great system for R & D and that its administration is a function of the history, technological characteristics, and present situation of the industry. These imply different procedures appropriate for the innovation process within the Industry. The role of British Gas within a national energy policy is discussed. The separation of the fuel industries affects the assumptions on which R & D plans are made and thus the degree of uncertainty inherent in all R & D planning. This raises interest- ing questions about the degree of flexibility possible in defining each industry's own objectives.     

Proposals for a digital industrial policy for Europe

A digital industrial policy should take into account the new opportunities for industrial policy arising from digitalisation for tackling the sluggish economic growth performance in the Europe. The structural problems and potential market failures related to the adoption of digital technologies are identified. Apart from incentives to invest into digital infrastructure, the policy measures should strengthen the intangible asset base along the value added chain of the digital economy, fostering the related R&D activities, along with the skills of researchers and of workers. Public and private sector financing, combined through financial instruments, should focus on furthering entrepreneurship and implementation of innovative business plans.     

Albanian telecommunication reform: The road less travelled

Albania has an average of only 1.4 telephone lines per 100 people. Yet telecommunications public policy reform is now increasingly viewed by the Albanian policy community as central to the country’s future economic and political ambitions. This paper aims to explain how this precarious state of affairs arose in Albania, and, using comparisons with some of its former allies (China, Russia and other Central and Eastern Europe countries), suggest what possible measures of telecommunication policy reform are now necessary to take account of the country’s unique cultural, economic and geographical conditions.     

美国创新药物研究与开发对我国的启示

本文从美国医药科技创新技术体系、法规体系和投融资体系等不同侧面,分析了美国创新药物的研发模式和成功经验,并提出了如何建设我国医药创新体系和提升我国医药科技自主创新能力的观点和建议,力求对提高我国新药创制能力有所裨益。     

The financing of telecommunications infrastructure

This article discusses the financing of telecommunications infrastructure in Eastern and Central Europe and the republics of the former USSR, and highlights the role and activities of the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development in this sector.     

A study of the diffusion of management concepts and techniques amongst R & D managers

The management of R & D has been the focus of a great deal of research and writing during the past decade. It is, however, by no means certain that these have produced a significant effect amongst R & D decision makers. This paper describes a study of the extent to which R & D managers are aware of management concepts and techniques. The subjects were 57 senior R & D managers from British and Continental organizations who attended courses at the Management Centre, University of Bradford in 1974/5. The study was conducted by means of a questionnaire and a 100 question forced choice Quiz. The paper suggests that knowledge of modern management thinking has, to date, made only a limited penetration into R&D.     

A systematic approach to technological forecasting

Past attempts to rationalize the many methods of technological forecasting have not been sufficiently practical; they have largely been based on an abstract sort of classification while their use has been of an ad hoc nature. This paper reviews the position and puts forward a rationale leading to a more logical classification of methods and a systematic approach to their use in practice. The proposed classification and systematic use of the many methods is based on the concept that a technological forecast has four prime elements or dimensions, qualitative, quantitative, time and probability. Only when all these elements are provided can a technological forecast be responsibly used in decision making in R & D and corporate planning.     

高新技术产业发展的金融支持研究

高新技术产业与金融存在互促共进的关系,高新技术产业化需要金融支持。高新技术产业发展技术经济系统是分为多阶段的,由于各个阶段和各个环节投融资的金融价值不同,对投融资需求的方式和数量也不同,从而导致对金融工具多样性的需求。除大型企业通过内源性融资进行研发外,高新技术产业成长根据各个阶段的目标、主体和特点不同,需要选择商业银行、投资银行、共同基金、风险投资基金、资本市场等不同的渠道融资和方式。     

Uncertainty in financing interest rates for startups

The difficulty for startups to secure financing is an important issue in relation to the economic progress of developing countries. As the main financing channel for startups, informal financing is a popular topic in theoretical and practical circles. Using data on 113,656 loans to startups in Wenzhou, China, from 2016 to 2018, this paper measures the uncertainty of financing rates. The results show that from the perspective of fund suppliers, micro-loan company lending is more uncertain than direct social lending. From the perspective of financing methods, the uncertainty of contract loans is greater than the uncertainty of credit loans and is rising year on year. From the perspective of the financing period, great uncertainties occur in short-term loans of one month and long-term loans of one year or more. These results provide empirical support for policy decisions to regulate micro-loan companies, establish the spirit of contract, and increase capital liquidity.     

Creating a bridge between university and industry in small European countries: the role of the Industrial Liaison Office

The frequent and intermittent need for new scientific knowledge has resulted in an increasing focus on links between industry and academic institutions. This has been particularly pronounced in the flows of knowledge between the two partners, which may lead to considerable diffusion of scientific and technical knowledge, particularly into the small firm sector. This development could be of particular benefit to smaller peripheral economies, which have demonstrated low levels of indigenous industrial technological development. As a result, universities could become increasingly important for local economic development in smaller countries on the periphery of Europe. However, a greater understanding is required of the pro-active role that the university itself can play in developing strong linkages with industry, particularly through mechanisms such as the Industrial Liaison Office (ILO). In particular, there needs to be an examination of the strategies and policies that are undertaken to increase the process of technology transfer from academia into local indigenous business within smaller countries. This paper will therefore examine the role that universities play in the regional economic development in two contrasting small countries of Europe, namely Sweden and Ireland. Drawing on interviews with key individuals in the processes of technology transfer between academia and industry (including ILOs), as well as secondary data, it will examine the general role and function of the industrial liaison office and how this has changed. It will also discuss the involvement of the university in different types of industrial links, the main opportunities and barriers to the development of links between university and industry, the benefits to the university from industrial links, and the perception of industry’s assessment of the relationship with universities. The research will provide valuable insight into the role of universities in developing innovation and entrepreneurship within the smaller and peripheral countries of Europe and will determine whether these universities are undertaking a pro-active role in encouraging the growth of innovative indigenous industry. This may have significant policy implications, especially with regard to the development of specific regional programmes to encourage academic-based entrepreneurship.     

Benchmarking telecoms regulation - The Telecommunications Regulatory Governance Index (TRGI)

In this study an index of the effectiveness of the institutional design of telecommunication regulators for 142 countries that belong to the International Telecommunications Union is produced. This index - the Telecommunications Regulatory Governance Index (TRGI) - ranks these countries regionally (The Americas, The EU27, Other Europe, Asia Pacific, Middle East and Northern Africa and Africa) as well as globally. Data from Transparency International are used to measure general political governance for these same 142 countries and show the correspondence or lack thereof between the TRGI and political transparency. Strong empirical evidence is found that countries with better institutions have telecommunication regulators that consistently score higher in the TRGI.     

炼油格局继续调整 新兴经济体和产油国炼油业稳步发展——2010年世界炼油工业综述

2010年,全球炼油能力比2009年增加约5030万吨,增速放缓。亚太地区占世界炼油总能力的比例从2009年的27%增至2010年的28.2%,欧美等发达地区炼油业在复苏中继续调整,西欧地区炼油能力继续下降。全球炼厂总数达到662座,炼厂平均规模从2008年的653万吨扩大到2010年的666万吨。随着国际油价逐步回升,2010年对石油下游产业的投资开始复苏,一些受金融危机和经济衰退影响暂时搁置推迟的项目重新启动,新兴经济体和产油国提出了更多的新建炼厂计划,中东依托资源优势积极新建炼厂,非洲寻求外资扩大炼油能力。跨国石油公司继续调整和缩减炼油业务,新兴市场国家石油公司积极拓展海外炼油资产。     

Coordination of multinational R & D: A Swedish case study

The need to coordinate multinational R & D increases in many corporations which want to take advantages of scale, synergy and multinationality on a world-wide basis. The Swedish engineering corporation SKF has tackled this problem as an early internationalized but lately diversified corporation working in mature technologies and markets. Substantial coordination has been achieved through a heavy resource commitment in a foreign corporate R & D lab, and a subsequent build-up of a rather elaborate system for R & D management throughout the corporation. The structure and processes of the system are described, together with experiences of coordinating effects, and a project case is given. The chosen mode of coordination is finally compared with situations in other industries.