Farmers' Access to Markets: The Case of Cotton in Pakistan

Using a cross‐sectional primary dataset collected from a survey of 325 farmers in the seven highest cotton‐producing districts of Punjab Province of Pakistan, the present paper examines cotton farmers' market participation decisions, and the factors driving participation, as well as the impact of participation on net returns. Tobit and censored least absolute deviation models were used to estimate the participation of farmers in markets, and the Heckman two‐stage approach and the propensity score matching method were applied to analyze the impact of participation on net returns, taking into account potential selection bias. The empirical results revealed that households with more education, wealth, and better transport facilities are more likely to participate in the markets. As the distance to market increases, households prefer to sell at the farm gate rather than the market. The results also indicated that households that sell their goods at the market obtain higher net returns than those selling at the farm gate.     

Determinants of Smallholder Farmers' Marketing Channel Choice: Evidence from the Vietnamese Rice Sector

Cash crops such as specialty rice and other high‐value varieties produced for domestic and international markets are considered an increasing source of income for smallholder farmers in many Asian countries. The present study focuses on the factors affecting Vietnamese specialty rice farmers' choice of marketing channel and how their choice influences farm performance. The analysis has been conducted using multinomial logit and linear regression models on quantitative data collected from 280 specialty rice farmers in the Red River Delta, one of the main rice production regions in Vietnam. Results reveal that even though local collectors and wholesalers are still the most common recipients of farmers' goods in rural areas, reduction in transaction costs with regard to uncertainty influences farmers to choose modern marketing channels through collective action (via specialty rice farmer associations). This collective marketing channel helps farmers increase average prices received by US$0.028 per kg of paddy. Based on the results, manifold political implications are derived.     

The paradox of developing agricultural mechanization services in China: Supporting or kicking out smallholder farmers?

Developing agricultural mechanization services (AMS) is commonly regarded as an important step in the modernization of smallholder farmers in China. However, given the increase in the opportunity costs of agriculture and the high cost of AMS, further study is needed to determine the relationship between AMS and smallholder farmers' exit from agricultural production. In this paper, data from the China Family Panel Survey collected in 2017 and 2019 are used to investigate this issue. Our findings show that the development of AMS reduces the probability that smallholder farmers exit from agricultural production though land abandonment, but increases the probability through land renting-out. Further analysis shows that with the emergence of large farm operators and the increase in land size rented by large farm operators, the development of AMS induces smallholder farmers' exit from agricultural production through both land abandonment and land renting-out. We also find that AMS can increase the market demand for land transfers and the marketization of land rentals, and as land markets develop, AMS induce smallholder farmers' exit through the abandonment of fragmented and distant land plots.     

农民专业合作社对农户生产效益的影响——基于湖南葡萄种植行业的调研分析

以湖南长沙、岳阳、娄底、怀化、常德70家葡萄园农户的生产资料作为研究样本,对农民专业合作社与农户生产效益的关系进行研究,结果显示：农民专业合作社社员与非社员农户之间存在生产效益的差异,非社员在葡萄销售价格、每亩资金成本、每亩收入、每亩净收入这四个生产效益指标上都低于社员,体现出加入专业合作社的优越性。为鼓励更多农户入社,建议增加农民专业合作社示范点,并且增加对农民专业合作社特色农产品的扶持,使农业增产、农民增收,推动我国农业现代化进程。     

Socio-economic reasons for the low adoption of water conservation technologies by smallholder farmers in southern Africa: a review of the literature

Natural resource degradation and water scarcity, which threaten the sustainability of smallholder farmers' livelihoods in semi-arid developing areas, are a global concern. Although researchers have developed water-conservation technologies (WCTs), adoption rates by smallholder farmers have been low. This article compares the perspectives of researchers and smallholder farmers, highlights the discrepancies which explain the farmers' low uptake of technologies and addresses the socio-economic factors affecting adoption. It argues that WCTs are diverse and applicable to different time and spatial scales and hence dependent upon context. These traits influence the dissemination and adoption of WCTs, and should not be ignored, from the early stage of technology development. It explains that adoption depends not only on individual farmers' willingness but also on property rights to resources and collective community action. The article discusses the demand for WCTs, the role of the public sector and research and related biases, and makes recommendations for achieving more sustainable rural livelihoods. Recent experiences in South Africa show that encouraging farmers to participate in technology development, taking account of local indigenous knowledge and making sound institutional arrangements are some ways to foster better integration of technology and innovation.     

农业补贴政策影响及调整方向研究

本文深入研究了农业补贴政策对粮食供给总量安全、粮食供给结构安全以及农户总收入水平的影响效果。基于构建的农业DSGE模型,从宏微观结合的多方位视角考察了多种农业补贴政策以及政府一般性服务支持政策对农业生产要素资本积累水平、农户投入行为决策、农业生产力水平以及农户总收入的影响效果和传导路径,并在此基础上结合宏观经济数据的真实反馈分析,全面考察了核心经济变量在农业补贴政策实施期间的真实影响效果。研究结果显示：（1）农业补贴政策能够有效刺激农户对农业生产要素投入水平的提高,深层激发和释放了农业生产力;（2）农业补贴政策能够有效保证农户基本经营收入水平,并显著增加农户可支配转移净收入水平,对保障农户基本总收入起重要作用;（3）最低收购价和临时收储等托市价格政策会刺激农产品价格呈现上升趋势,并不利于农业种植结构不平衡的调节。     

Farmers' Variety Attribute Preferences: Implications for Breeding Priority Setting and Agricultural Extension Policy in Ethiopia*

Abstract: Technological progress in Ethiopian agriculture is the slowest by any standard, with rather very poor capacity to address the nation's problems of low agricultural productivity, poverty, and resource degradation. This paper argues and attributes the low level of technology adoption and impact to the discrepancy between the farmers' needs and the attributes of technologies generated. The empirical evidences have been generated based on the analyses of coffee farmers' variety attribute preferences, taking coffee seedlings as production technologies. Attribute preferences of smallholder farmers are governed by their contextual household characteristics, institutional, and socioeconomic factors. According to the results, risk vulnerable farmers prefer seeds adaptable to their local conditions and varieties with stable yield attribute. On the contrary, farmers in more accessible areas and/or those who are less concerned in securing subsistence income levels opt for income maximizing attributes, namely, yield and marketability. The study results have also shown the mechanisms of how farmers' attribute preferences change with development‐oriented interventions. The paper demonstrates why and how policy‐makers should formulate context specific technology development and agricultural extension strategies.     

Market-Channel Choices of Indonesian Potato Farmers: A Best–Worst Scaling Experiment

We present an empirical analysis of how buyer (and trader) attributes influence decisions of market participation and channel choice among smallholder potato farmers in West Java, Indonesia. We use a best–worst scaling experiment to evaluate the determinants of these decisions and gauge the influence of buyer attributes. Our latent-class cluster analysis reveals that producers have heterogeneous preferences for buyer attributes, which address classic smallholder constraints such as access to inputs, credit, and information. This heterogeneity can be somewhat explained by household characteristics and assets. The broad mass of our sample sought buyers whose attributes imply lower market risk for farmers. Yet roughly a quarter of our sample, a portion that included farmers with large, specialised farms, sought buyers who could provide inputs such as high-quality seeds.     

Comparative Economics of Maize and Rice Production among Resource-Poor Farmers in Anambra State of Nigeria

Abstract: Maize and Rice are some of the most important grains in Nigeria. Although Nigeria has the potential to become self-sufficient in their production, maize and rice production currently lags behind demand. This study has examined the characteristics of resource-poor maize and rice farmers, (defined in terms of land availability, estimated income per farmer, access to credit and capital) in Anambra State of Nigeria, the impact of these characteristics on yield, and the efficiency of use of stated inputs by the farmers. It was found that low income farmers (both maize and rice) had smaller farm size, smaller loan size (credit), adopted a smaller number of recommended production technologies, had lower levels of formal education, are younger, had a smaller household size, and less number of years of farming experience than high income farmers. The regression analysis result shows that farm size, credit, level of adoption of recommended production technologies, level of formal education of fanners, and age of farmers are significantly related to the maize farmers' output, but household size and number of years of farming experience account for less. In the case of rice farmers, the regression analysis result reveals that farm size, level of adoption of recommended production technologies and number of years of farming experience are significantly related to the farmers' output, but level of formal education of farmers, age of farmers, household size, and credit account for less. The results of gross margin analysis reveal that maize and rice production are not very profitable when the present value of the Naira in relation to cost of living in Nigeria is considered.     

Aspects of profitability that influence smallholder cash-crop preferences in northern Mozambique

This study analyses profitability in terms of relationships between various aspects, indicators and cash-crop cultivation preferences. Both financial and pragmatic aspects of profitability were found to be related to cash-crop preferences. Apart from the need to promote a crop with a good farm gate price and to reduce production and marketing costs, promoters need to strengthen the wider system by supporting profitability as well as household consumption requirements. The correlation between indicators of expected profitability improved as more financial and pragmatic aspects were incorporated. Smallholder farmers' rankings of profitability correlated better with cash-crop preferences when the analysis incorporated more aspects of profitability. In addition, the results indicated the institutional support needed to improve the profitability of cash crops. This simple method of identifying smallholder preferences for one cash crop among many is of paramount importance in the design of strategies for improving agricultural market participation.     

Risks and returns in international currency futures

Conclusion This paper analyzed the risk/return level of international currency futures traded on International Monetary Market of Chicago during 1972–1977 period. The empirical results indicate that relative risk and returns for each currency future studied are both close to zero during the sample period. The fact that the beta value for currency futures is close to zero implies its returns are uncorrelated with the market portfolio. Therefore, investors can reduce the risk level of their total portfolio significantly by adding currency futures.     

Efficiency or equity? The effect of an exogenous agricultural commercial shock: Evidence from Manchuria in the 1930s

The adoption of high-value cash crops (HVCs) is considered an efficient way to improve farmers' productivity and welfare, although the systematic empirical evidence is limited. By exploiting an exogenous commercial shock for soybeans and microlevel rural survey data from Manchuria of China in the 1930s, where factor markets were relatively well functioning, this study investigates the influence of HVC cultivation on farmers' agricultural performance, welfare, and inequality both theoretically and empirically. We find that (i) larger farms devote a larger proportion of land to HVCs and that (ii) farmers who cultivate a larger proportion of HVCs have higher agricultural productivity, profit, net income, and expenditure. Furthermore, the adoption of HVCs lowers profit, income, and expenditure inequality by enhancing income from wages relative to land rents, which benefits households with less land.     

Does crop insurance reduce pesticide usage? Evidence from China

We test how crop insurance participation affects the intensity of pesticide use in China using data on staple crop production from eight provinces. Our preferred specification instruments farmers' decisions of participation in insurance by village-level intensities of promotional activities and controls for province fixed effects. We find crop insurance participation significantly reduces pesticide use intensity. The reduction effect is greater for smaller plots, older farmers, and farmers who are more risk averse.     

社会认同、环境认知与农户绿色生产行为

基于江西省微观农户调查数据，用有序Probit模型考察社会认同对农户绿色生产行为采纳的影响，检验环境认知在二者间的中介效应及异质性分析。结果表明：社会认同对农户绿色生产行为采纳程度有显著正向影响；环境认知在社会认同对农户绿色生产行为采纳程度具有部分中介效应；异质性分析发现，环境认知对老年组和男性农户具有显著影响，而对非老年组和女性农户未起到显著影响。社会认同对老年组农户更具有显著影响。据此提出培育农户环境认知、激发农户主体意识、加强政策引导宣传等建议。     

Marketing of farmer professional cooperatives in the wave of transformed agrofood market in China

The upstream agrofood market in China is dominated by a vast number of small farmers and traders, which challenges food safety compliance. To promote small farmers' access to the commercialized agrofood market, membership in farmer professional economic cooperatives (FPCs) is considered to be an important strategy by the Chinese leaders. The goals of this study are to investigate the marketing of FPCs in China and to determine their record of food safety compliance. Based on 157 FPCs from a nearly national representative survey, this paper shows that marketing FPCs in China relies primarily on the wholesale market, but there is a notable penetration of the modern supply chain via FPCs. Government-driven agribusiness facilitates farmers' access to markets via FPCs. However, food safety standards are not well-specified in the current FPCs' marketing.     

Farmers' Preference for Farming: Evidence From a Nationally Representative Farm Survey in India

Using data from a nationally representative farm survey in India, we have analyzed Indian farmers' stated preference for farming as a profession. Findings show that more than 40% of farmers dislike farming as a profession because of low profits, high risk, and lack of social status, yet they continue with it owing to a lack of opportunities outside agriculture. Farmers who express a preference for moving out of agriculture are mostly those with small landholdings, poor irrigation facilities, fewer productive assets including livestock, and follow a cereal‐centric cropping pattern. They also have relatively lower access to credit, insurance, and information, and are weakly integrated with social networks such as self‐help groups and farmers' organizations. Importantly, the disinclination for farming, conditional on other covariates, is not significantly differentiated by caste, an important indicator of social status in rural India. Yet, within a caste group, the dislike for farming moderates with larger landholdings.     

北京市森林生态补偿政策对农户公益林保护行为的影响

基于计划行为理论分析北京市森林生态补偿政策对农户公益林保护行为之间的因果关系,重点探讨影响公益林保护农户行为的路径和因素。通过实证分析发现：北京市森林生态补偿政策对农户生态公益林保护行为的影响是间接的,其影响路径是森林生态补偿政策、农户行为态度、农户生态公益林保护意愿、农户生态公益林保护行为;北京市森林生态补偿政策因素通过其对农户生态公益林保护意愿及行为的影响是偏弱的,森林生态补偿政策中对农户行为所起的经济杠杆作用还有潜力可挖。     

Marginal returns on Chinese agricultural technology transfer in Nigeria: Who benefits more?

Agricultural technology transfers are generally considered an effective means of solving persistently low yields in sub-Saharan Africa. This study assesses the impact of the Chinese agricultural training program on farmers' productivity and income using ex-post non-experimental data from Ogun State, Nigeria. Our empirical approach is based on marginal treatment effect models. We find that the returns for individuals who participated in Chinese agricultural technology training indicated a 68.5% increase in yield and a 45.3% increase in agricultural income. Furthermore, we show that the program targets farmers from advantaged backgrounds, who may benefit less from attending the program than disadvantaged farmers, who experience a lower incentive to participate. Finally, we suggest sufficient awareness and incentives to encourage highly resistant farmers to participate in such programmes.     

The effect of China's agricultural tax abolition on rural families' incomes and production

This paper uses the rural household panel data collected by Research Center for Rural Economy to evaluate the impacts of China's agricultural tax abolition during 2004–2005 on farmers' income and production behavior. We find that the abolition of agricultural tax did not significantly affect agricultural production. The effects on input use and productivity are also found statistically insignificant. All these are consistent with the lump-sum property of the tax and imply little effect of the tax abolition on relaxing credit constraints to farmers. Finally, we find that the tax abolition did not increase farmers' net income significantly.     

Farmers' cash crop cultivation decisions in Southern Niassa province,Mozambique

The aim of this study was to evaluate socially farmers' decisions about the cultivation of cash crops. It specifically assessed the feasibility of World Relief-SempreVerde scheme by investigating the agricultural promoters; the factors influencing farmers' decisions to adopt, reject, discontinue or continue with the promoted crops; and the support required for improving the food and income security of smallholder farmers. The research took place in nine villages in Cuamba district, Niassa province, Mozambique. It involved a survey of 245 farmers stratified according to gender and wealth. Focus group discussions, questionnaires and interviews with leaders, farmers and managers of promoter institutions were used. A model for introducing cash crops is proposed. This research suggests that agricultural promoters should look to cash crops that can be intercropped with existing food crops; explore dry season agricultural activity; select drought-, pest- and disease-resistant crops; provide markets for existing crops; promote perennial crops; build a well-organised extension, credit and buying system; and/or incorporate livestock in the existing farming system.