Competition and open source with perfect software compatibility

In this paper we study duopolistic competition between closed and open source software. Inspired by recent contributions on open source, we propose a two-stage game with perfect information and product differentiation, in which producers first set software quality and then determine prices (the price is zero for open source programs). We assume perfect software compatibility and model lock-in effects, a network externality component of software quality, and accumulation of experience in software use and implementation. In comparison to the monopolistic benchmark case, we argue that, in a duopoly created by the emergence of an open source program, the proprietary software producer will reduce its selling price if: (i) its network of users is larger than the open source network and its consumers are largely familiar with its program, (ii) it has a small network of unskilled consumers. On the other hand, the price of proprietary software will increase if its users form a large, but poorly-skilled network. Furthermore, we show that, in all of the above cases, the hedonic quality of proprietary software increases. Finally, by modeling experience accumulation processes through difference equations, we show that the ratio between the closed and open source programs’ opportunity costs for software learning and deployment plays a crucial role in shaping market outcomes. If open source software remains too complex and technical for unskilled or time-pressed users, a shared market solution, in which both programs are adopted, is likely to emerge. However, if opportunity costs in learning and understanding open source programs are particularly low, or at least equal to the opportunity costs of a closed-source program, then open source dominance emerges (i.e. markets tip to open source).     

Pragmatism, not ideology: Historical perspectives on IBM’s adoption of open-source software

We track IBM’s approach to software production and commercialization between 1950 and the present. We find that in the 1950s IBM followed what today would be called an open-source model – its software source code was open, free of charge, and written collaboratively with its users. By the mid 1980s, all of these attributes had been reversed – IBM’s software was closed source, sold or leased independently of hardware sales, and written without the collaboration of its users. More recently, the company has been in a state of transition, achieving a balance between free, open-source software and proprietary software that still generates 20% of its revenues. We interpret these radical swings in light of the substantial changes that have taken place since the 1950s in the costs and benefits of open source, bundled, and collaborative software vis-à-vis the alternatives.     

Half a Century of Public Software Institutions: Open Source as a Solution to Hold‐Up Problem

We argue that the intrinsic inefficiency of proprietary software has historically created a space for alternative institutions that provide software as a public good. We discuss several sources of such inefficiency, focusing on one that has not been described in the literature: the underinvestment due to fear of hold‐up. An inefficient hold‐up occurs when a user of software must make complementary investments, when the return on such investments depends on future cooperation of the software vendor, and when contracting about a future relationship with the software vendor is not feasible. We also consider how the nature of the production function of software makes software cheaper to develop when the code is open to the end users. Our framework explains why open source dominates certain sectors of the software industry (e.g., programming languages), while being almost non existent in some other sectors (e.g., computer games). We then use our discussion of efficiency to examine the history of institutions for provision of public software from the early collaborative projects of the 1950s to the modern “open source” software institutions. We look at how such institutions have created a sustainable coalition for provision of software as a public good by organizing diverse individual incentives, both altruistic and profit‐seeking, providing open source products of tremendous commercial importance, which have come to dominate certain segments of the software industry.     

技术学习、管理学习对自主创新的影响——技术复杂性的调节作用

在国内外竞争日趋激烈的背景下，如何提高企业自主创新能力受到广泛关注。基于组织学习理论，构建了技术学习、管理学习、技术复杂性与自主创新之间的理论模型，并利用252家中国制造业企业调研数据对相关假设进行了检验。结果表明：技术学习对自主创新具有倒U型影响；管理学习对自主创新具有正向影响；技术学习与管理学习的交互效应对自主创新具有正向影响；技术复杂性会加强技术学习对自主创新的倒U型影响，削弱管理学习对自主创新的正向影响。     

数字商务与产业集群外部经济协同演化：产业数字化转型的一种路径

产业集群是现代产业发展的重要组织形式,外部经济通常被认为是形成集群竞争力的重要源泉,但近年来传统集群陷入“低端锁定”僵局,迫切需要进行数字化转型。数字商务正是驱动数字经济形成与发展的重要引擎,其发展不断赋予产业集群新内涵、新特征和新动能,促进集群经济向数字化、智能化方向转型升级,两者协同演化形成驱动中国数字经济高质量发展的不竭源泉。研究表明,数字商务与集群经济协同演化过程可分为起步阶段（多点突破）、发展阶段（串点成线）、拓展阶段（连线成网）和成熟阶段（推演成体）,层层递进,沿着要素配置效率提升→要素共享平台构建→协同网络形成→数字生态圈演进的路径影响产业集群的内涵与发展,推动产业集群沿着相对封闭的供应链体系→价值网络→社会化协同网络→开放的产业生态路径不断演进。两者协同演化将使马歇尔外部经济来源大大拓宽,且多个层次的外部经济相互促进、溢出,促进协同网络内企业家的要素配置能力与创新绩效提升,由此使得集群外部经济增进具有动态性与内生性。此外,政府通过提供公共品,促进数字商务与产业集群协同发展,从而使集群外部经济增进可持续。     

Designing a forecasting analysis to understand the diffusion of open source software in the year 2010

Open source software (OSS) is being considered the new paradigm of software distribution. As contrasted with the traditional software marketing model, OSS pursues the freedom to have access to open source and offers several advantages to enterprises. These advantages include saving costs related to Information Systems and Technologies (IS/IT) and the possibility of adapting to changing organizational requirements. However, the recent forthcoming of OSS prevents us from knowing the real impact it has today on social and organizational fields. Having considered this obstacle, the authors have defined a foreseeable setting for OSS diffusion and adoption by means of a forecasting study based on the Delphi method for the year 2010. The findings reveal the levels of OSS diffusion for this year according to the main applications, geographic regions and industries. In a complementary manner, the authors have studied the elements of success as well as the most relevant obstacles for diffusing and adopting technological solutions based on OSS.     

开放源代码创新社群中的激励机制研究

通过对开放源代码创新社群内部创新机制的研究,阐述了激发用户创新和有效利用创新成果的激励机制,并从静态与动态两个维度分析了社群成员之间的相互作用与激励。     

Current issues and research trends on open-source software communities

Open source software (OSS) projects represent a new paradigm of software creation and development based on hundreds or even thousands of developers and users organised in the form of a virtual community. The success of an OSS project is closely linked to the successful organisation and development of the virtual community of support group. This paper reviews different fields and research topics related to the OSS communities such as collective intelligence, the structure of OSS communities, their success, communities as virtual organisations, motivation, shared knowledge, innovation and learning. The main challenges, results obtained, and the knowledge areas are detailed for each topic.     

Factors influencing organizational participation in the Clinical Nurse Leader project

When the American Association of Colleges of Nursing introduced the Clinical Nurse Leader"s (CNL) pilot project in 2004, it was the first time in more than 40 years that an attempt was made to introduce a new role to the profession. This new role was designed to address many challenges related to patient care in the current health care delivery system including a need for more effective clinical problem solving, better coordination at the point of care, stronger interdisciplinary relationships, and more rapid implementation of evidenced-based practice findings at the patient-provider interface. Critics from both academic and practice settings have questioned the need and wisdom of introducing a new role to the profession at this time. The factors that led some nursing leaders in early stages of this project to be proactive and involve their organizations as early adopters of the CNL role were examined in this study. Five major factors were identified from the research to form a framework designed to explain organizational participation: organizational needs, a desire to improve patient care, an opportunity to redesign care delivery, the promotion of the professional development of nursing staff, and the potential to enhance physician-nurse relationships. The ability of academic and service partners to forge the types of relationships and promote best practices as is occurring in the CNL project may be a critical success factor in confronting the current and impending nursing shortage.     

THE EFFECTS OF ORGANIZATIONAL FORM IN THE MIXED MARKET FOR FOSTER CARE

ABSTRACT ** : This paper uses proprietary quality of care data to examine the consequences of organizational form in privatized US foster care services. The contract failure hypothesis generically proposes that nonprofits should provide higher quality services, relative to for‐profits, when output is costly to observe. Advocates argue that the nonprofits offer important consumer protections when public services are contracted to private agencies. Contrary to expectations, we find that nonprofit firms do not offer higher quality services. We explore the possibility that monitoring efforts by state regulators or competition among foster care agencies effectively mitigate the influence of organizational form in this particular mixed market.     

Organizational Learning in Successful East Asian Firms: Principles, Practices, and Prospects

Guided by Marquardt’s system-linked organizational learning model, this article investigates the nature of and limits to latecomer–catchup learning engaged in by East Asian firms within the electronics industry over the past three decades. This is basically an adaptive, re-active, single-loop form of learning that emphasizes speed and enlargement of market share at the expense of technological depth and breadth. Challenges for the 21st century revolve around the need to make a transition from reverse engineering to breakthrough engineering; from an efficiency-centered to a creativity-propelled mode of competitive stance; and from knowledge exploitation to knowledge exploration in new critical areas such as design, software engineering, new product/process development, marketing, R&D, management of strategic alliances with international partners, and the development of a vibrant local components and capital goods network.     

Engineering solutions to software problems: Some institutional and social factors shaping change

Software is the core of information technology systems, the major factor i n system costs and the main source o f system malfunctions. The software development process is currently characterized as a labour-intmsive craft activity which has resisted automa- tion. Software engineering covers a set of approaches which are intended to address the long-standing twin problems of low productizlity in software development and the poor quality of software products. It encompasses a range of tools, methods and procedures which aim to assert a n engineering culture to displace existing ad hoc processes. Many governments have supported programmer of software engineering R&D. This article argues that the adoption of sotiware engineering is mediated and resisted by social, organizational, cultural and in~titutionat factors. These are identified and their implications discussed.     

Engineering solutions to software problems: Some institutional and social factors shaping change

Software is the core of information technology systems, the major factor i n system costs and the main source o f system malfunctions. The software development process is currently characterized as a labour-intmsive craft activity which has resisted automa- tion. Software engineering covers a set of approaches which are intended to address the long-standing twin problems of low productizlity in software development and the poor quality of software products. It encompasses a range of tools, methods and procedures which aim to assert a n engineering culture to displace existing ad hoc processes. Many governments have supported programmer of software engineering R&D. This article argues that the adoption of sotiware engineering is mediated and resisted by social, organizational, cultural and in~titutionat factors. These are identified and their implications discussed.     

Exploring Strategic R&D Success Factors

This paper identifies strategic R&D success factors for organizations that produce R&D results for proprietary use. First, six types of R&D organizations are identified by using the criteria of profit orientation and external or internal use of R&D results. Following this, success criteria are identified by studying sample organizations that match the classification criteria. In the concluding section it is shown that important success criteria can be derived, many of which are independent of the organizational arrangement chosen for the generation of R& D results. Among them are: embedment into the scientific system, development of core competencies, securing appropriability, choosing appropriate organizational structures and processes.     

Exploring Strategic R&D Success Factors

This paper identifies strategic R&D success factors for organizations that produce R&D results for proprietary use. First, six types of R&D organizations are identified by using the criteria of profit orientation and external or internal use of R&D results. Following this, success criteria are identified by studying sample organizations that match the classification criteria. In the concluding section it is shown that important success criteria can be derived, many of which are independent of the organizational arrangement chosen for the generation of R&D results. Among them are: embedment into the scientific system, development of core competencies, securing appropriability, choosing appropriate organizational structures and processes.     

Getting the Ball Rolling: Voluntary Contributions to a Large-Scale Public Project

This paper examines dynamic voluntary contributions to a large‐scale project. In equilibrium, contributions are influenced by the interplay of two opposing incentives. While agents prefer to free ride on others for contributions, they also prefer to encourage others to contribute by increasing their own. Main findings of the paper are that (1) agents increase their contributions as the project moves forward; (2) as additional agents join the group, existing agents increase their contributions in the initial stages of the project while reducing them in the stages close to completion; (3) groups that are formed by more patient agents and that undertake larger projects tend to be larger; and (4) groups that rely on voluntary contributions tend to be too small compared to the social optimum. The empirical evidence on contributions to open‐source software projects provides partial support for these findings.     

Information Systems Project Abandonment: A Case of Political Influence by the Stakeholders

This paper serves as a stimulus to investigators to examine the role organizational politics plays in decisions leading to the abandonment of information systems (IS) projects. While prior research has identified the development of IS projects as a highly political process, where stakeholders may be more concerned about furthering their self-interests than about contributing to the overall success of the project, there has been little research on identifying the political factors contributing to IS project abandonment. Our case demonstrates six types of political action that took place that caused an electronic commerce (e-commerce) project to be abandoned. Finally, when analyzing mistakes and their principal causes, there is one important lesson that we should learn. That is, all organizations make mistakes and there is the potential for learning from project abandonment experiences.     

建筑企业敏捷能力成熟度评价方法

根据企业敏捷性理论,在软件能力成熟度模型(CMM)、项目管理成熟度模型(K-PMMM)和组织项目管理成熟度模型(OPM3)的基础上,结合中国建筑企业的特点,提出了建筑企业敏捷能力成熟度模型(ACMM-CE),从企业战略层面、项目运作层面和价值层面研究建筑企业的敏捷能力,并对其关键过程域的等级进行划分。然后,以战略管理层面为例,列举了8个关键过程域、22个关键实践以及达到其成熟度等级所需的最佳实践。最后,利用问卷调查法和雷达图法评定了实例企业的敏捷能力成熟度等级。     

A general equilibrium analysis of software development: Implications of copyright protection and contract enforcement

We develop a general equilibrium model to study the implications of a legal environment on the organization of software production. We show that contract enforcement determines the organizational mode (i.e., in-house versus outsourcing) of customized software development while copyright protection affects both packaged software as well as customized software development. We obtain some testable results: when copyright protection is weak, only customized software will be developed; when copyright protection is strong, both customized software and packaged software will be developed; environment changes in one software market affect the equilibrium in the other software market.     

关系学习、组织惯例更新对开放式服务创新的影响

为探索服务经济时代服务企业如何充分利用外部合作关系实现开放式服务创新,基于动态能力理论,以组织惯例更新为中介变量、共享愿景为调节变量,构建关系学习影响开放式服务创新的理论模型,并运用回归分析和Bootstrap方法,对376份样本数据进行实证分析。结果表明,信息共享、共同理解和特定关系记忆均会对开放式服务创新产生不同程度的积极影响;关系学习的3个维度（信息共享、共同理解和特定关系记忆）通过组织惯例更新的中介作用影响开放式服务创新;共享愿景在共同理解对组织惯例更新的驱动作用中发挥显著正向调节作用,但在信息共享和特定关系记忆影响组织惯例更新方面不具有显著调节作用。