Price elasticity of water allocations demand in the Goulburn–Murray Irrigation District*

Bid prices for the demand and supply of water allocations between 2001 and 2007, and average monthly prices paid for water allocations from 1997 to 2007 in the Goulburn–Murray Irrigation District are analysed to estimate price elasticities. Based on bid prices, the price elasticity of demand for water allocations appears highly elastic, with elasticities strongly influenced by the season and drought. The price elasticity of supply for water allocations is also elastic, albeit less elastic than demand. Using actual prices paid, water demand is negatively related to price and is inelastic, and appears to be most influenced by demand the previous month, drought and seasonality factors.     

城市居民用水需求影响因素研究

介绍城市居民用水需求影响因素研究的背景,定性分析城市居民用水需求的影响因素,分析城市居民用水量的影响因素计量模型。确定影响城市居民水资源需求的主要因素：水价的提高会对减少城市居民用水数量;水资源的短缺状况会显著降低城市居民用水量;城市居民家庭用水存在规模效应;城市用水人口素质越高,人均年用水量越多。得出结论：通过运用价格机制,改革用水制度,可以调动人们节约用水的积极性;采用更为节水的生产技术,会大大消除水资源供求缺口,其成本也可能大大低于调水方案。除此之外,城市居民的社会经济特征也会影响到城市居民用水量,例如家庭平均人口数以及受教育人口比例等。     

Station level gasoline demand in an Australian market with regular price cycles*

Regular and frequent gasoline price cycles are being observed in many Australian and Canadian markets. What is driving these price cycles has been the subject of academic studies and government investigations. The existing explanations for these price cycles all rely on the presumption that drivers are intensively sensitive to gasoline price differentials at the station level. However, no empirical evidence exists in the literature to support this presumption. This paper provides the first piece of empirical evidence. This paper uses a unique price and quantity data set and novel instruments to estimate the station level gasoline demand in the cycling market of Perth, Australia. The elasticity estimates confirm that drivers in the Perth area are indeed very sensitive to gasoline price differentials.     

水价对中国北方城市居民用水需求影响分析

介绍城市居民用水需求变化的背景,对北方城市居民用水需求进行了预测。得出结论：水价对于减少城市居民用水需求的作用非常显著;城市化的高速发展会对城市居民用水造成巨大压力,对城市居民用水价格、用水管理手段和农业节水制度的积极改革,为解决城市居民用水供需缺口提供可能。     

Urban water demand with fixed volumetric charging in a large municipality: the case of Brisbane,Australia*

This paper uses suburb‐level quarterly data to model residential water demand in Brisbane, Australia, from 1998 to 2003. In this system, residential consumption is charged using a fixed annual service fee with no water entitlement followed by a fixed volumetric charge per kilolitre. Water demand is specified as average quarterly household water consumption and the demand characteristics include the marginal price of water, household income and size, and the number of rainy and warm days. The findings not only confirm residential water as price and income inelastic, but also that the price and income elasticity of demand in owner‐occupied households is higher than in rented households. The results also show that weather, particularly summer months and the number of rainy days, exerts a strong influence on residential water consumption.     

沈阳市城镇居民生活用水需求影响因素分析

利用时序数据及沈阳市康平县城镇居民生活用水的截面数据,对沈阳市城镇居民生活用水需求的影响因素进行实证分析,估计其需求价格弹性、需求收入弹性及需求教育弹性。估计结果明显有别于其他地区的研究结果,建议沈阳市应根据城镇居民生活用水水价偏低、收入弹性较大的实际,同时考虑到居民的承受力,调高水价时采用递增的阶梯式水价或补贴低收入用水户等政策,合理发挥价格杠杆的作用,同时还应注意到负的需求教育弹性,加强对居民的节水宣传教育。     

Nondiscretionary residential water use: the impact of habits and water‐efficient technologies

Several studies published in the last few decades have demonstrated a low price‐elasticity for residential water use. In particular, it has been shown that there is a quantity of water demanded that remains constant regardless of prices and other economic factors. In this research, we characterise residential water demand based on a Stone‐Geary utility function. This specification is not only theory‐compatible but can also explicitly model a minimum level of consumption not dependent on prices or income. This is described as minimum threshold or nondiscretionary water use. Additionally, the Stone‐Geary framework is used to model the subsistence level of water consumption that is dependent on the temporal evolution of consumer habits and stock of physical capital. The main aim of this study is to analyse the impact of water‐saving habits and water‐efficient technologies on residential water demand, while additionally focusing attention on nondiscretionary uses. This is informed by an empirical application using data from a survey conducted among residents of Brisbane City Council, Australia. The results will be especially useful in the design of water tariffs and other water‐saving policies.     

海南省水资源供需分析

阐述海南省水资源的特征及变化趋势,并针对水资源供需中存在水资源开发利用率低,用水效率不高,水环境污染和水资源供需矛盾大等问题,提出保障水资源供需的战略措施,即建立新型水资源价值体系、水资源供需保障体系、水资源供需集团化与规模化经营体系和水资源安全保障体系等。     

An empirical assessment of the value of irrigation water: the case study of Murrumbidgee catchment*

Evaluation of value of irrigation water is essential for supporting policy decision making relating to investments in the irrigation sector, efficient allocation of irrigation water and water pricing and for crafting policies to compare the variable impacts of water reform within and across sectors of the economy. This paper asks the question of how much an established irrigator would pay for water and at what price farmers planning to expand the area they have under irrigation would consider paying for the right to access water. An analytical framework is developed to estimate the net present value of both annual and perennial agricultural activities in the Murrumbidgee catchment. Using these estimates the total value of water used in Murrumbidgee catchment is estimated. An aggregate water supply curve is derived for the catchment from where water may be acquired from irrigators for environmental flows.     

溧水县水资源供需分析

针对溧水县水资源特点,分析水资源现状。结合节水型社会建设的要求,采用相应的定额,分析预测了各行业需水量和供水量,分析不同平衡分析方案的缺水度。分析表明,在一次平衡方案下,溧水县近期和远期缺水度均大于30%,处于严重缺水状态。在二次平衡方案下,可以有效地解决缺水问题。     

At‐home meat consumption in China: an empirical study*

The remarkable economic changes occurring within China since 1978 have resulted in a striking alteration in food consumption patterns, and one marked change is the increasing consumption of meat. Given China’s large population, a small percentage change in per capita meat consumption could lead to a dramatic impact on the production and trade of agricultural products. Such changes have major implications for policy makers and food marketers. This paper concentrates on meat consumption patterns in the home in China. A censored linear approximate almost ideal demand system model was employed in the study, and major economic parameters were estimated for different meat items. Data used in this study were collected from two separate consumer surveys – one urban and one rural in 2005.     

农业两部制水价改革的福利效应分析

介绍了我国农业水价制度的变迁及农业水价的制定方法。分析了我国农业水价改革的水价福利效应。以湖北灌区农业水价改革为例，分析了农业水价改革的实践效果及改革中存在问题的成因。分析结果表明：农业水价改革强化了农田灌溉中的水量限制，而忽视了既定制度约束下农民用水的需求理性和灌溉系统脆弱的供水能力；农业两部制水价改革加剧了灌溉供水的时间需求与灌溉系统输配水能力之间的矛盾，导致农业灌溉水供求脱节、水资源利用率下降，难以达到节约用水和改善水资源分配效应的预期目标；完善水价形成机制、推进用水交易合约化是水价改革成功的关键。     

Structural changes in Swedish wastepaper demand: a variable cost function approach

The primary purpose of this paper is to analyse the short-run price responsiveness of wastepaper demand in Sweden for four different paper and board products, as well as any structural changes in demand behaviour for these products over time. The analysis is done within a variable Translog cost function model, and we employ data for individual paper and board mills over the time period 1974-1994. The results suggest that the short-run own-price sensitivity of waste paper demand is relatively high compared to those of other input factors, and it has also tended to increase over time for some of the paper products. In addition, wastepaper demand has also become more sensitive to changes in energy prices, and its use increases with increases in the price of energy. However, the relationship between wastepaper and woodpulp is more complex, and in many instances wastepaper and woodpulp are short-run complements. Overall this implies that price based recycling policies will be relatively successful in promoting wastepaper use, but they will not necessarily lead to the conservation of virgin forest resources.     

Demand under product differentiation: an empirical analysis of the US wine market*

Oversupply has led to a number of perplexities for the Australian wine industry in recent times. When disaggregated from the industry level, however, the problem can be better described as a range of attribute‐specific disequilibria. To date, the solutions to this problem have predominantly revolved around supply‐side policies of reducing output through crop thinning or vine pulling. By contrast, this paper focuses on the demand side and argues that the disequilibria may be reduced by gaining a better understanding of the demand for Australian wine. A discrete choice model of product differentiation is used to estimate the demand for wine in Australia's second largest export market, the United States. Implications of the analysis are explored.     

区域水资源供需的系统动力学仿真

以广东省北江下游影响区为研究范围，基于系统动力学的理论和方法，按照科学发展观的要求，应用系统分析、可持续发展的思路，在系统分析区域水资源供需系统各要素之间及其与人口、经济、社会、生态环境等发展之间互动影响关系的基础上，建立区域水资源供需的系统动力学模型，并进行了动态仿真模拟，认为GDP增长受到水资源不足的制约，因此，在追求经济效益的同时，必须考虑到水资源的可持续利用，而不是“掠夺式”利用，注重GDP增长速度与环境保护的协调发展。     

Demand for fish in Asia: a cross‐country analysis*

Fish demand patterns in nine Asian countries were investigated using a multistage budgeting framework allowing a disaggregated approach to analysing fish consumption. This paper highlights the heterogeneity of fisheries products in terms of species, sources and cultural responses of consumers, factors that are important in fish demand under the Asian setting. Specifically, fish demand by income groups were compared to determine how the low‐ and high‐income households respond to price and income changes. Results showed that the estimated price and income elasticities of all fish types included in the study were relatively more elastic among the poorer households.     

基于水资源需求侧管理的法规政策体系研究

为更加合理地配置和利用水资源,借鉴电力市场需求侧管理的经验,对我国水资源需求侧管理的法规政策体系进行研究。介绍了中国现行的水资源管理法规政策体系,从水资源需求侧管理角度分析了我国实施水资源需求侧管理存在的障碍,提出了从法律、行政法规、地方法规规章和政策各层面建立和完善我国水资源管理法规政策体系的整体方案。     

Urban water management: optimal price and investment policy under climate variability*

Australian urban water utilities face a significant challenge in designing appropriate demand management and supply augmentation policies in the presence of significant water scarcity and climate variability. This article considers the design of optimal demand management and supply augmentation policies for urban water. In particular, scarcity pricing is considered as a potential alternative to the predominant demand management policy of water restrictions. A stochastic dynamic programming model of an urban water market is developed based on data from the ACT region. Given a specification of the demand and supply for urban water state dependent optimal price and investment policies are estimated. The results illustrate how the optimal urban water price varies inversely with the prevailing storage level and how the optimal timing of investment differs significantly between rain dependent and rain independent augmentation options.     

基于行业发展与政府规制双重约束的新疆旅游业用水需求预测

首先基于旅游业行业发展和水资源管理政府规制的双重约束,设计9种情景;然后从旅游全要素视角,建立由餐饮、住宿、能源、生态、购物等5类水足迹账户组成的旅游业用水需求量预测模型;将旅游业从业人员纳入账户,提出不同情景下旅游业5类水足迹账户的预测方法;最后对2025年不同情景下新疆旅游业用水量进行了预测。研究结果表明:2025年,相较于政府规制力度和行业发展速度,新疆旅游业用水需求量对后者更为敏感;9种情景中,中/强是最适宜的发展情景,即控制游客规模以9%的速度发展,旅游业年度新增就业人员4万人,政府控制万元工业增加值用水量年均节水率7%,控制居民生活用能源增速为5.52%。