INTERNATIONAL LABOUR FORCE PARTICIPATION RATES BY GENDER: UNIT ROOT OR STRUCTURAL BREAKS?

This paper examines the possibility of unit roots in the presence of endogenously determined multiple structural breaks in the total, female and male labour force participation rates (LFPR) for Australia, Canada and the USA. We extend the procedure of Gil‐Alana for a single structural break to the case of multiple structural breaks at endogenously determined dates using the principles suggested by Bai and Perron. We use the Robinson LM test to determine the fractional order of integration. We find that endogenously determined structural breaks render the total, female and male LFPR series stationary or at best mean‐reverting.     

Is there a unit root in the inflation rate? New evidence from panel data models with multiple structural breaks

In this article, we examine whether or not the inflation rate for 17 OECD countries can be modelled as a stationary process. We find that (1) conventional univariate unit root tests without any structural breaks generally reveal that the inflation rate contains a unit root; (2) the KPSS univariate test with multiple structural breaks reveals that for 10 out of 17 countries inflation is stationary; and (3) the KPSS panel unit root test reveals strong evidence for stationarity of the inflation rate for panels consisting of countries which were declared nonstationary by univariate tests.     

DO REAL INTEREST RATES REALLY CONTAIN A UNIT ROOT? MORE EVIDENCE FROM A BOOTSTRAP COVARIATE UNIT ROOT TEST

This paper re‐examines the empirical finding that international real interest rates usually have a unit root. This conclusion is put forth in Rapach and Weber (2004 ), using the Ng and Perron (2001 ) tests. We use Rudebusch's (1993 ) approach to construct the small sample distributions of the Ng and Perron tests, and calculate their asymptotic sizes, size‐adjusted powers and rejection rates. These numbers show that the lack of power in the Ng and Perron tests might account for the findings of Rapach and Weber (2004 ): that the unit root null cannot be rejected for most OECD countries. Size distortions are mild in the case of Ng and Perron tests for two series, but are serious for the Phillips and Perron Z‐test on inflation rates. We then apply a powerful covariate augmented Dickey–Fuller unit root test to examine the series for which stationarity cannot be determined with the Ng and Perron tests. The bootstrap technique is also used to control possible size distortions. In contrast to the results of Rapach and Weber (2004 ), the bootstrap covariate augmented Dickey–Fuller test yields striking evidence that real interest rates are stationary for 14 of 16 OECD countries, because nominal interest rates are stationary for the 14 countries, while inflation rates are stationary for all countries.     

The effects of expected inflation on real returns in the argentine indexed bond market

A relatively unrestricted market in goverment indexed bonds operated in the high-inflation Argentine economy from 1975 through 1982. The indexed bond yields from this period provide an interesting opportunity to examine the relation between real interest rates and expected inflation. The test results support the hypothesis that expected inflation is a significant source of variation in real interest rates, depressing the real yields on indexed bonds.     

Does money have a role in the inflation process? Evidence from Australia

Inflation, defined as a sustained increase in the price level, is considered a monetary phenomenon, as it can be explained within the framework of money‐demand and money‐supply relationships. In the extant literature, money growth is shown to remain causally related to inflation across countries and over time, irrespective of the exchange rate regime and stability of the money‐demand function. Nevertheless, emerging literature suggests a diminishing role of money in the conduct of monetary policy for price stability, especially under inflation targeting. Monetary policy in Australia under inflation targeting since 1993 is an example of policy that denies a relationship between money growth and inflation. The proposition that money does not matter insofar as inflation is concerned seems odd in both theory and the best‐practice monetary policy for price stability. This paper uses annual data for the period 1970–2017 and quarterly data for the period 1970Q1–2015Q1. It deploys both the Johansen cointegration approach and the autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) cointegration approach to investigate for Australia whether money, real output, prices and the exchange rate (non‐stationary variables) maintain the long‐run price‐level relationship that the classical monetary theory suggests in the presence of such stationary variables as the domestic and foreign interest rates. As expected, the empirical findings for Australia are consistent with the classical long‐run price‐level relationship between money, real output, prices and the exchange rate. The error‐correction model of inflation confirms the presence of a cointegral relationship among these variables; it also provides strong evidence of a short‐run causal relationship between money supply growth and inflation. On the basis of a priori theoretical predictions and empirical findings, the paper draws the conclusion that the monetary aggregate and its growth rate matter insofar as inflation is concerned, irrespective of the strategy of monetary policy for price stability.     

A Test of Long-run Purchasing Power Parity Allowing for Structural Breaks*

If exchange rates and prices are integrated processes, standard econometric tests of the purchasing power parity (PPP) hypothesis may be biased towards rejection. This paper avoids this problem by using the Engle and Granger (1987) theory of cointegrated processes. If the absolute version of purchasing power parity is true, and nominal exchange rates and prices are integrated processes, inter-commodity arbitrage should ensure that the real exchange rate is stationary. The stationarity hypothesis is tested using Australian real exchange rate data for the 1890–1984 period We find that the effective real exchange rate cannot be modelled as a stationary process and therefore reject the absolute version of PPP. We also employ a test for structural breaks due to, for instance, the oil price shock and find mixed results. Another interpretation of our results is that the real exchange rate was affected by a series of permanent, real shocks during the sample period     

A note on the specification of the fisher equation under inflation uncertainty

The effect of uncertainty on the relationship between the nominal interest rate and the expected rate of inflation, the Fisher equation, is examined both theoretically and empirically. It is found that the coefficient of the expected rate of inflation is significantly below unity. Variable rates of inflation tend to effect the nominal rate of interest positively, but real yields are apparently effected only by expected inflation, but not its variance.     

Are business cycles stationary fluctuations around a deterministic trend? Empirical evidence from 79 developing countries

There is a large literature that tests the univariate time series properties of the real output series following the seminal work of Nelson and Plosser (1982). Whether or not real output is characterized by a unit root process has important implications. A unit root in real output, for instance, is inconsistent with the notion that business cycles are stationary fluctuations around a deterministic trend. In this paper, we investigate the univariate time series properties of real output for 79 developing countries using the conventional augmented Dickey and Fuller (1979) unit root test, the Zivot and Andrews’ (1992) one structural break unit root test, and the Lumsdaine and Papell (1997) two structural breaks unit root test. Our main finding is that, for 40 countries, real output is stationary around a trend. This indicates that business cycles are stationary fluctuations around a deterministic trend for only 51% of the developing countries in our sample.     

Response of inflation to shocks: New evidence from Sub-Saharan African countries

In this paper, we investigate whether or not the inflation rate of 17 Sub-Saharan African countries can be modelled as a stationary process. We achieve this goal through using univariate and panel stationarity tests for data over the period 1966 to 2002. We use the Kwiatkowski, Phillips, Schmidt and Shin (KPSS, 1992) univariate test and allow for multiple structural breaks. We find that except for Burkina Faso, Burundi and Gambia, the inflation rate is stationary for the rest of the 14 countries. We then apply the panel version of the KPSS test, developed by Carrion-i-Silvestre et al. (2005), which accounts for multiple structural breaks. We find strong evidence of panel stationarity of the inflation rate. However, for a panel consisting of Burkina Faso, Burundi and Gambia, we could not find evidence that the inflation rate is stationary.     

Cost shifting: an empirical examination of hospital bureaucracy

The paper investigates which factors determine the expected real long-term interest rates of the G7-countries as a whole within a single equation error correction model. Inflationary expectations are generated using the low frequency component of inflation provided by the Hodrick-Prescott filter. A comparison of the calculated expected inflation rates with those resulting from index-linked and conventional UK bonds suggests this approach to be appropriate. Expected real long-term interest rates turn out to be influenced positively by real short-term interest rates, capacity utilization and structural public borrowing.     

The Interdependence of Australian and Foreign Real Interest Rates

We assess the interdependence of the Australian and foreign (USA, Japan, UK, Canada, Germany, NZ) short-term real rates of interest using a quarterly time series: 1970(1) to 1997(4). Applying Zivot and Andrews (1992) tests for stationarity subject to structural breaks we find all series to be 1(1). Structural breaks occurring in each series at different times are explained by policy changes, institutional characteristics or shocks such as the second oil crisis. Conventional bivariate cointegration tests (without breaks) provide limited evidence of interdependence, however using the Gregory Hansen (1996a,b) technique it is clear that foreign and Australian rates are interrelated once structural breaks are accommodated. Multivariate cointegration and error correction modelling confirm this finding. Policy implications are indicated.     

The Long Run Demand for Broad Money in Australia Subject to Regime Shifts

The goal is to determine if there is a stable Broad Money demand relationship for Australia. Previous studies have not reached a consensus on this important issue, partly because the time series techniques used do not accommodate structural breaks. A standard multivariate cointegration analysis is conducted on monthly data over the period 1976(3) to 1998(4). It reveals some evidence for the presence of cointegration since one cointegrating vector is found. This involves broad money, the spread between interest on broad money and on non-money assets and real GDP. The evidence of cointegration is again present when a structural break is found in the relationship using Gregory and Hansen (GH) methodology. This occurs in 1991 coinciding with a deep recession and policy induced, interest rate reductions. The income elasticity of demand exceeds one, reacts positively to the interest spread and negatively to inflation.     

Revisiting Purchasing Power Parity in OECD

This study revisits Purchasing Power Parity theory (PPP) in the 34 OECD countries during January 1994–August 2013. We use a new panel stationary test with both sharp breaks and smooth shifts, a novel approach to panel unit-root testing, proposed by Bahmani–Oskooee et al. (2014). The results indicate that the PPP holds in half of the 34 OECD countries. These results indicate the importance of proper modelling of both sharp breaks and smooth shifts in real effective exchange rate series of OECD countries.     

Bayesian model averaging and identification of structural breaks in time series

Bayesian Model Averaging (BMA) is used for testing for multiple break points in univariate series using conjugate normal-gamma priors. This approach can test for the number of structural breaks and produce posterior probabilities for a break at each point in time. Results are averaged over specifications including: stationary; stationary around trend and unit root models, each containing different types and number of breaks and different lag lengths. The procedures are used to test for structural breaks on 14 annual macroeconomic series and 11 natural resource price series. The results indicate that there are structural breaks in all of the natural resource series and most of the macroeconomic series. Many of the series had multiple breaks. Our findings regarding the existence of unit roots, having allowed for structural breaks in the data, are largely consistent with previous work.     

Real interest rates,inflation and the open economy: A regime-switching perspective on Australia and New Zealand

We investigate the time-series properties of Australian and New Zealand real interest rates within a Markov-switching framework. This enables us to identify characteristics in real interest rate behavior hitherto unacknowledged. We find that rates switch between alternative stationary regimes characterized by differing means, speeds of mean-reversion and volatility. For New Zealand, high rates of inflation increase the probability of remaining in a regime characterized by a faster speed of adjustment. Further application of this methodology considers the real interest rate differential between Australia and New Zealand and points to differing regimes based on volatility rather than persistence.     

Budget deficits,short-term real interest rates and the specification of expected inflation: an empirical investigation

The purpose of this paper is to illustrate whether empirical estimates of the effects of budget deficits on short-term real interest rates are sensitive to the choice of the expected inflation variable. Survey data on expected inflation and the rational expectations method described by Mishkin (1981) are used to construct two measures of the short-term real interest rate. Results for two previous studies on this deficit-interest rate relationship are re-estimated using these measures of expected inflation and the interest rate variables. Additional results reported in this paper further indicate that empirical estimates of the interest rate effects of budget deficits are sensitive to the choice of the expected inflation variable. In addition to the choice of the inflation variable, a number of other robustness tests are included. We are able to conclude that (1) increases in budget deficits do not generally raise short-term real interest rates and (2) short-term real interest rates are not independent of the expected inflation variable.

The rate of interest is always based upon expectation, however little this may be justified by realization. Man makes his guess of the future and stakes his action upon it … Our present acts must be controlled by the future, not as it actually is, but as it appears to us through the veil of chance (Fisher, 1907, p. 213).     

Central Bank's interventions and the Fisher hypothesis: a threshold cointegration investigation

The long-run relationship between nominal interest rates and inflation is examined, allowing for structural breaks and asymmetric mean reversion. From a Threshold AutoRegressive (TAR) test applied to the residuals of the cointegration relationship (while allowing for both a break in the mean of the long-run equation and a smooth regime-transition), there is strong evidence for non-linear mean reversion properties for the real interest rates of the US Treasury Bill market. This suggests asymmetric changes to inflation shocks in the Central Bank's reaction function. The existence of different regimes is consistent with some interpretations of the monetary policies run by the Fed, such as credibility and opportunism.     

Monetary and real shocks in a monetary Union: The Swiss case

We analyze to what extent real and monetary shocks affect price levels and real exchange rates in seven Swiss regions. A structural time series model is set up and estimated using the Kalman filter under two assumptions on the persistence of monetary shocks. We find that the variability of changes in price levels is mainly due to real shocks. The variance of monetary shocks is small but the monetary component of inflation differences across regions differs from zero with some persistence. As the Swiss case shows this does not seem to be a major obstacle to forming a monetary union.We thank Ernst Baltensperger, Tobias Rötheli, and participants at the Econometric Society European Meeting 1994 for stimulating discussions. The paper has also benefitted from constructive comments of two anonymous referees. Both authors gratefully acknowledge financial support provided by the Swiss National Foundation through Grants no: 8210-040206 (T.J.) and 12-40498.94 (C.L.).     

市场结构反转下之费雪效应研究

本文主要目的系考量结构改变风险下,对台湾地区费雪效果之再检验。模型的使用选择ZivotandAd-rews(1992)对ADF单根检定之修正模型(简称Z&A修正模型)。该模型的优点,在于允许结构断裂点(break-point)由资料特性内生(endogenizing)决定,而非研究者主观判断。过去文献指出,检验费雪效果之结果,与选用之时间序列资料之定态与否有高度相关,因此本研究使用修正后之Z&A修正模型,更严密的检视资料分析过程之前置检验阶段,将有助于后续分析获得较精确之推论结果。Z&A修正模型发现名目利率、通货膨涨率之水平项即为定态序列,在修正冲击(shock)对序列的长期影响后,两总体变数在长期间是相当稳定的。而其进一步向量自我回归分析结果,显示台湾地区之费雪效果在此一期间并无法被支持。     

THE TIME‐SERIES PROPERTIES OF UK INFLATION: EVIDENCE FROM AGGREGATE AND DISAGGREGATE DATA

This paper contrasts the time‐series properties of aggregate and disaggregate UK inflation. While aggregate inflation is found to be non‐stationary, unit root rejection frequencies are increasing when we use more disaggregate data. Structural break analysis suggests that structural shifts in monetary policy could alter inflation persistence. Additionally, panel evidence indicates that the unit root hypothesis can be rejected for sectoral inflation rates. Finally, we compare the persistence properties of UK inflation, finding statistically significant differences between aggregate and disaggregate series. Our analysis suggests that aggregation matters, which has important implications for econometric analysis and the conduct of monetary policy.