The Effect of Aggregation Bias: An NTB‐modelling Analysis of Turkey's Agro‐food Trade with the EU

We explore how different data aggregation levels affect the gravity estimates of non‐tariff barriers (NTBs) in the agro‐food sector, and we examine their related impacts on policy simulations of an expansion to the European Union (EU) that would include Turkey. We calculate two sets of ad valorem equivalents (AVEs) of NTBs using the gravity approach to disaggregated and aggregated Central Product Classification data for 15 Global Trade Analysis Project (GTAP) agro‐food sectors. We find that the AVEs of NTBs vary substantially across products and that using aggregated data primarily results in greater effects of NTBs. In a second step, we incorporate the AVEs of NTBs into the GTAP model to evaluate Turkey's EU membership and conclude that aggregation bias has considerable effects on both the estimation of NTBs and the general equilibrium simulation results. Utilising different data aggregation levels leads to a great variability of trade costs of NTBs and, hence, to misleading trade and welfare effects.     

Non-tariff barriers are a manageable problem

With the advancing general dismantiement of tariffs, it became progressively more obvious that, apart from import duties, there are a number of other obstacles for a free flow of international trade. There are numerous rules, regulations, and restrictive practices imposed and operated by government departments and semi-official bodies which exert a more or less strong influence on the volume, the directions, and the composition of foreign trade. Such measures designed to channel trade into desired directions are collectively known as non-tariff barriers (NTBs).     

Product-level estimation of import demand: Simulating the effects of tariff harmonisation

Developing countries have traditionally used import tariffs to protect infant industries and raise revenues to finance government expenditure plans. This approach, however, has tended to protect inefficient industries and to some extent hindered economic development. A disaggregated import demand model is estimated using monthly observations on 91 of the most frequently imported product items in Barbados. The results are then employed to evaluate the feasibility of harmonising tariff rates to some single rate across product categories. The results suggest that the estimation of aggregate import demand equations is not accepted by the data and therefore could result in misleading inferences. The policy simulation exercise indicates that a single applied tariff at the 30% level would essentially be revenue neutral, while rates above this level would lead to reductions in tax receipts.     

Protection for sale under monopolistic competition

This paper broadens the protection for sale model of Grossman and Helpman (1994) by incorporating the Krugman-Dixit-Stiglitz model of monopolistic competition, given its importance in explaining the prevalence of intraindustry trade. Several new results arise in this paper. First, the endogenous import tariff will never fall below zero, even in unorganized sectors. Second, the endogenous export policy for organized sectors is not necessarily an export subsidy, and can be an export tax as in unorganized sectors. Third, the level of import protection varies inversely with the degree of import penetration, regardless of whether the sector is organized or not.     

Product differentiation and duration of US import trade

We examine the extent to which product differentiation affects duration of US import trade relationships. The results are consistent with a matching model of trade formation. Using highly disaggregated product level data we estimate the hazard rate is at least 23% higher for homogeneous goods than for differentiated products. The results are not only highly robust but are often strengthened under alternative specifications. As the smallest relationships are dropped, differences across product types increase. Controlling for potential measurement errors also results in larger differences across product types.     

Policy choice: Theory and evidence from commitment via international trade agreements

Why do governments employ inefficient policies when more efficient ones are available for the same purpose? We address this puzzle in the context of redistribution toward special interest groups (SIGs) by focusing on a set of important policies: tariffs and non-tariff barriers (NTBs). In our policy choice model a government can gain by committing to constrain tariffs through international agreements even if this leads to the use of less efficient NTBs; commitment has political value because it improves the bargaining position of a government that is weak relative to domestic SIGs. Using detailed data we find support for several of the model's predictions including: (i) tariff commitments in trade agreements increase the likelihood and restrictiveness of NTBs but not enough to offset the original tariff reductions; (ii) tariff commitments are more likely to be adopted and more stringent when the government is weaker relative to a SIG. Thus, the results can explain the use of inefficient policies for redistribution and suggest that the bargaining motive is an important source of the political value of commitment in international agreements.     

The regional trade dynamics of Turkey: a panel data gravity model

This paper analyzes the Turkish export and import flows with regard to regional clusters (RCs) and bilateral trade costs (BTCs) by using a panel data gravity model. We study the role of RCs and BTCs in two complementary parts: in the first part, we use an unbalanced panel data for 180 countries over the period 1960–2012, compiled from the DOTS database. We extend these estimations by running the data at four different time intervals, each representing different economic or political regimes in Turkey. In the second part, we repeat the same exercise at sectoral level for 176 countries over the period 1994–2010, using the BACI database. Aggregate estimates show that the gravity model is very effective in explaining the export and import flows of Turkey and that all close-by regions, including EU27, have a significant impact on trade flows of Turkey. We also find that the EU Customs Union has a negative effect on Turkish exports and a positive effect on imports. Estimates at selected time intervals reinforce aggregate estimates and sectoral level analyses indicate that while some regions contribute positively in all or the majority of sectors, others contribute negatively or produce mixed results.     

Are US Exports Different from China’s Exports? Evidence from Japan’s Imports

Are US exports different from China’s exports? If so, how? This article attempts to answer this question, using product‐level manufacturing import data from Japan. To make the comparison clear, this article also examines exports from the EU. The results indicate that more than 85 per cent and 83 per cent of products exported by the US and the EU, respectively, to Japan are also commonly exported from China. Both the US and the EU export products are priced higher than China’s export products, regardless of industries. This result suggests that quality differences matter in explaining the high overlap of China’s export products with US and EU export products. In some industries, however, the price differences of US and EU exports relative to China’s exports are relatively small. This result implies that either Chinese firms are upgrading the quality of their products, or US and EU firms are improving their efficiencies such that they can compete with Chinese firms.     

逆比较优势进口高技术含量中间品与生产技术革新

科学刻画逆比较优势进口高技术含量中间品对生产技术革新的影响效应能为制定科学进口国外中间品和提升生产技术革新速度方面的政策提供有益参考,以剖析上述效应为目标的多维细致检验结果表明：首先,制造型和服务型中间品进口技术含量逆比较优势指数对生产技术革新的影响效应呈现倒U型,进口约2.5倍于自身比较优势水平技术含量的中间品能最大化中间品进口的生产技术革新功能,这一结论在多层面检验中均稳健成立。其次,中国中间品进口技术含量逆比较优势指数处于倒U型顶点的左侧正效应区间。对于动态比较优势持续提升的中国而言,在处理好“卡脖子”风险的基础上,可适度提升中间品进口技术含量,以更好地发挥中间品进口的生产技术革新功能。最后,倒U型效应具有非常强的稳定性,多维外部冲击均无法撼动倒U型效应。为此,倒U型效应可谓协调中间品进口和生产技术革新间关系的“铁律”。     

东亚双边进口贸易流量与潜力:基于贸易引力模型的实证研究

本文利用东亚10个主要经济体1995-2004年的面板数据,建立东亚贸易引力模型,对东亚进口贸易流量的影响因素和潜力进行研究。研究显示,国家经济规模、中国-东盟自由贸易区、东盟自由贸易区、进口国制度、国际直接投资、国家间的经济水平差距和地理距离是东亚双边进口贸易流量的主要影响因素。中国香港、泰国、日本和印度尼西亚对东亚的进口潜力较大,中国、马来西亚、菲律宾和新加坡对东亚的进口潜力较小。加强东亚区域内最终产品市场和区域贸易合作的发展、推进东亚各经济体的制度改革和调整、积极合理地引进国际直接投资、加强物流建设与合作,应成为东亚各经济体未来重要的政策取向。     

丁二烯抽提装置阻聚剂的研制及应用

介绍了乙烯工艺阻聚剂ZC的研制及在大庆石化公司化工一厂丁二烯抽提装置上的工业应用情况。结果表明，阻聚剂ZC的使用性能达到了进口阻聚剂水平，完全可以替代进口产品应用在工业装置中。     

基于投入产出模型的中日进出口产品结构合理性比较研究

从进出口部门的角度出发,通过构建进出口产品结构的合理性评价机制和评价指标,运用中日两国的投入产出表,对中日两国进出口产品结构的合理性进行分析和比较。结论如下:中国进出口产品结构的合理性要优于日本进出口产品结构的合理性,中国的进口产品合理度指数高于日本的进口产品合理度指数,而出口产品的合理度指数却低于日本。最后分析了产生这些差距的原因,并得出了重要的政策启示。     

进口竞争与企业产品专业化--基于中国多产品企业的研究

本文以企业内部资源配置为视角,检验了进口竞争对企业内部产品专业化的影响。研究发现,进口竞争显著地促进了中国企业的产品专业化程度。进口竞争的加剧促使企业缩小产品生产范围,使其将资源集中到少数核心产品的专业化生产和销售上来。这一过程伴随着企业产品种类的减少和企业整体产品范围偏度的集中。本文利用中国对外反倾销冲击作为进口竞争程度下降的拟自然实验,考察了企业是否受反倾销保护对其产品专业化程度影响的因果效应。进一步的异质性检验表明,相比加工贸易而言,一般贸易产生的进口竞争对企业产品专业化的促进作用更大;相比低收入国家而言,来自高收入国家的进口竞争对企业产品专业化的促进作用更大。本研究对如何理解进口竞争对中国经济发展的影响,提供了来自企业内部产品配置的证据。     

中国反倾销的贸易保护效应:基于产品进口倾向性的比较研究

反倾销所引发的贸易保护效应是学者们重点关注的贸易问题,本文则从进口倾向性角度研究反倾销所引发的不同的贸易保护效应。本文首先对中国所发起的47起反倾销案例依据进口倾向指数区分为高进口倾向产品和低进口倾向产品;通过对高进口倾向和低进口倾向产品的描述性分析可以看出高进口倾向产品反倾销的贸易限制效应低于低进口倾向产品反倾销的贸易限制效应,而两类产品均存在贸易转移效应,但是两类产品的贸易转移效应没有非常显著的差异;实证模型的检验结果进一步验证了不同进口倾向产品的反倾销所引发的贸易效应存在一定差异。     

Japanese consumers' use of extrinsic and intrinsic cues to mitigate risky food choices

The stated preference data were used to simulate and examine consumers' valuation of important extrinsic and intrinsic cues that are associated with risky foods. This analysis generates information on how consumers assess trade‐offs between price and selected intrinsic and extrinsic cues to determine their choice among alternative products. From this, optimum level of product quality attributes (i.e. intrinsic cues) and optimum price level for import products can be derived. Also, most effective sources of communicating food safety and risk management can be identified. The results show that the country origin cue is a key factor in understanding consumers' choice behaviour for food product that entails potential risk, which may suggest that consumers are using this information as a risk‐reduction strategy.     

Domestic regulation,import penetration and firm-level productivity growth

This paper shows that the impact of import penetration on firms’ productivity growth depends on firms’ distance to the efficiency frontier and on product market regulation. Using firm-level data for a substantial number of OECD countries from the late 1990s to late 2000s, the analysis reveals nonlinear effects of both sectoral import penetration and de jure product market regulation measures, depending on firms’ positions along the global distribution of productivity. Close to the technology frontier, import penetration has a strongly positive effect on firm-level productivity growth, with less stringent domestic regulation enhancing this effect substantially. However, far from the frontier, the effect of import penetration on firm-level productivity growth is much smaller and often not significant. Its interaction with domestic regulation generally has no statistically significant effect either. The heterogeneous effects of import penetration and domestic product market regulation on firm-level productivity growth are consistent with a neo-Schumpeterian view of trade and regulation.     

Retailers and Consumers: The Pass‐through of Import Price Changes

In this paper, we estimate pass‐through rates of import price changes to retail prices across retailers and consumers for apparel purchases in Germany for the period of 2000–07. We find that high‐price retailers do not pass through changes in the import price. Pass‐through rates for low‐price retailers are 53 per cent within three months. Consequently, pass‐through rates for low‐income households are 58 per cent, significantly larger than those for high‐income households. We then present one possible explanation for these observations in a theoretical model with endogenous vertical product differentiation due to bundling an ex ante homogeneous import goods with services. Following an import price change, retailers who sell a cheaper unbundled product change prices to a greater extent than retailers who sell a higher‐priced bundle of product and service.     

Trade liberalization, wage inequality, and endogenously determined nontraded goods

We examine the boundary between traded and nontraded goods as a channel for trade to impact factor prices. In a two-country, two-factor, continuum-good model, tariffs generate a range of nontraded goods. A tariff reduction has a direct effect to expand a country’s import set and an indirect effect through terms of trade to expand its export set. We show that the export expansion can dominate the import expansion, raising the relative demand for the factor intensively used in production. The result is useful in explaining observed rising wage inequality in developing countries following trade liberalization.     

聚偏二氯乙烯市场分析

聚偏二氯乙烯（PVDC）具有很好的阻隔性能,尤其可阻湿、阻氧、防潮、保鲜、耐酸碱、耐油浸和耐多种化学溶剂,还具有强韧性、低温热封、热收缩性和良好的化学稳定性,是理想的包装新材料,广泛地用于食品、药品等的保鲜和防潮包装。PVDC树脂的生产和应用前景十分广阔。国外主要由美国、欧洲、日本生产,对助剂进行不断改进,适应各种不同的用途。目前国内已经有几个生产厂家,其中个别企业是采用自己开发的技术,产品的各项性能已达到进口同类产品水平。     

后配额时期我国纺织品服装出口竞争态势分析

根据WTO《纺织品服装协议》(ATC协议)的规定,从2005年1月1日起,世贸组织所有成员国的纺织品服装进口配额将被全部取消,意味着历时10年的ATC结束,也标志着长期游离于GATT/WTO体制外的纺织品服装贸易的回归,全球纺织品服装贸易将会产生新的变化。因此,充分了解我国纺织品服装出口竞争态势,对制定后配额时期我国纺织品服装出口战略,应对配额取消后的机遇与挑战至关重要。文章运用战略分析法,系统分析了我国纺织品服装产业的比较优势与劣势,为制定我国纺织品服装行业的发展战略提供一个框架。