How Small Is Too Small? Firm Size as a Barrier to Exporting from the United States

The purpose of this paper is ask whether there is a minimum size that firms must achieve to take advantage of the benefits of exporting from the United States. An analysis of 2,822 firms in 49 different industries in South Carolina, a rapidly growing export–driven state, was conducted to address this question. This paper builds on the contributions of previous research in the areas of small to medium–sized enterprises (SMEs) and export success and SMEs in the export development process. Analysis of manufacturing exports from South Carolina indicates that firm size serves as a necessary as well as a sufficient condition for export success among small manufacturing firms. Reasons for this are discussed, and implications for managers and policymakers are offered.     

Educating limited resource older adults for better choices to lower risk of food insecurity

United States (U.S.) national and North Carolina state data on older adult food insecurity in combination with associated poor nutrition‐related health outcomes point to a critical need for interventions to improve their food security. Nearly 8% of North Carolinians aged 60 and older and 11% of those aged 50–59 are food insecure, placing North Carolina in the top ten states in the U.S. for food insecurity for both age groups. Therefore, the Better Choices intervention was designed to educate limited‐income older adults in ways to manage their meager resources to purchase more and healthier foods. The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of the Better Choices intervention in improving the knowledge, attitude, and behavior of participants concerning their food money resource management. Older adults (n = 453) with ages ranging from 59 to over 90 years participated in 8 weeks of educational programming delivered by educators in 15 participating North Carolina counties. In a cross‐over program design participating counties were randomly assigned to two groups, to create a control for the food money resource management treatment. A three‐points‐in‐time survey supported longitudinal measurement. Independent samples t‐tests showed no significant differences between groups at baseline. Paired sample t‐test results show the intervention was effective with statistically significant improvement of participants' knowledge regarding preparing a healthy meal on a budget, beans as a low‐cost alternative to meat, and the use of unit pricing to compare products to identify the best value. Participant‐developed action plans reflected planned behavior change. Study results show this group of older adults were capable of and willing to adopt new behaviors for a healthier lifestyle. While not a representative sample, the broad applicability of adult learning and planned behavior theories underpinning the program lead us to conclude that the methods and theories applied in this intervention should be of use to educators and practitioners serving limited‐resource older adult populations.     

Sourcing patterns of export‐platform foreign affiliates: The case of Japanese affiliates in Mexico

This study investigates the sourcing patterns of Japanese export‐platform foreign affiliates in Mexico, which mainly export to the United States and Canada. We propose a novel approach to estimate intermediate input elasticities of exports by sourcing country. We find that, on average, Japanese export‐platform foreign affiliates in Mexico source intermediate inputs from third countries, including the United States and Canada, rather than from Japan and Mexico, suggesting that Japanese export‐platform foreign affiliates in Mexico are mainly integrated into the vertical production networks back and forth between Mexico, the United States and Canada. In turn, Japanese foreign affiliates selling domestically in Mexico source intermediate inputs not only within the North American Free Trade Agreement countries but also from Japan. In addition, we find that export‐platform foreign affiliates in Mexico use more labour‐intensive production than do foreign affiliates selling domestically in Mexico. This suggests that saving labour costs is one of the motives for export‐platform foreign direct investment in Mexico.     

中美农产品贸易收益核算及贸易摩擦的影响分析

在全球生产分割的背景下,海关统计数据由于包含大量重复计算的成分,并不能真实反映一国某部门的贸易收益情况。文章通过构建跨国投入产出模型,定义增加值出口为衡量双边贸易收益的指标,从增加值出口变化趋势、行业分布情况及贸易收益的实现方式,分别剖析2000~2014年中美两国农产品各部门的增加值出口情况。发现中美农产品双边贸易的盈余方实为中国,农产品行业的大量增加值隐藏在本国的其他部门中出口。中国市场对美国农业经济的拉动作用在提升,两国农产品行业实现收益的方式不同,中国越来越趋向于附加值含量低的粗加工中间品出口。两国农产品贸易关系紧密,对第三国市场的依赖不断下降,中美贸易摩擦对两国农产品行业的收益都将造成较大的冲击。     

Impact of sales Promotion's benefits on perceived value: Does product category moderate the results?

The purpose behind the development of this research article is to assess the impact of sales promotions benefits on consumer perceived value and examine the moderating effect of product categories on the relation between sales promotions, their benefits, and consumer perceived value. The study used a sample of 400 consumers from India and ‘Structure Equation Modelling’ technique is applied to evaluate the research assumption. Finally, the moderating effect of the product category is evaluated by utilizing ‘Multi-Group Analysis' technique. Research findings reveal that the product category moderates the consumer's perceived value for hedonic and utilitarian benefits of sales promotion tools. It is found that utilitarian benefits of sales promotion have more impact on consumer perceived value in the context of personal care product while hedonic benefits are having more impact on consumer perceived value in the context of food products. A sales promotion plan can be made more effective when it is hedonic benefit oriented in the case of food products and utilitarian benefit oriented in the case of personal care products. The findings of this research can be useful for marketers to develop an effective sales promotion strategy considering the category wise differential impact of sales promotions benefits.     

对中美双边贸易利益结构的测算与分析——基于WWZ方法的测算与实证研究

随着全球价值链分工与贸易的发展，在增加值视角下重新测算与分析中美双边贸易的利益结构，对解释2018年中美贸易摩擦具有重要意义。文章应用双边/产业层面的贸易增加值核算方法，从前向生产联系和后向生产联系两个角度对中美双边贸易利益结构进行国家层面和产业层面的研究，并对中国增加值出口的影响因素进行实证检验。主要结论有：增加值视角下的中美贸易顺差严重缩水，美方发布的贸易逆差数据严重失真；中国在全球价值链中的位置落后于美国，导致贸易顺差在中国，但结构性收益在美国；中国服务业在中美贸易中的获利能力远不及制造业，2000—2014年中国主要的顺差产业未发生较大变化；参与全球价值链对我国制造业和非制造业增加值出口的影响不同，吸引外资对中国产业增加值出口具有显著的正向促进作用。     

Price promotion landscape in the US and UK: Depicting retail practice to inform future research agenda

Price promotions dominate the modern grocery retail environment. This paper documents the prevalence and nature of these price promotions (i.e., deal types and discount depths) in the United States and United Kingdom. The analysis comprises of 23 categories across five retail chains. One of the key findings is that multiple-unit promotions – deal types that have been under-researched – account for approximately half of all price promotion activity. The analysis also identifies an increase in price promotion prevalence since the Global Financial Crisis, predominantly driven by national brand promotions. This research carries important implications for the alignment of academic research with common industry practices.     

An empirical test of the Theory of Sales: Do household storage constraints affect consumer and store behavior?

We revisit and test Salop and Stiglitz (1982) Theory of Sales. Equilibrium comparative static predictions are that greater consumer storage constraints lead to: (1) higher average prices, (2) fewer promotions, and (3) shallower promotions. In equilibrium, price dispersion is nonlinear in storage constraints, first increasing then decreasing. Empirical estimates of storage constraints are developed for approximately 1,000 households using the American Housing Survey (1989), United States Census (1990), and Stanford Market Basket Database (1991–1993). We find consumers with greater storage constraints shop more often and purchase smaller quantities per visit; moreover, the comparative static predictions are supported and evidence consistent with the equilibrium dispersion prediction is observed. Estimated quantitative effects are economically important. JEL Classification D12 · D40 · M3     

Multiple unit price promotions and their effects on quantity purchase intentions

Consumers often encounter multiple unit price promotions whereby a price reduction is presented as a reduced total price for multiple units of the same item (e.g., an item regularly priced at $1.25 each is promoted as “5 for $5”). In a series of experiments, we find that the positive effect of these promotions on quantity purchase intentions is contingent on the magnitude of the quantity specified in the offer and the rate of product consumption. However, offer effectiveness is not influenced by highlighting single unit prices, the unrestricted nature of these promotions, or aggregate savings. As predicted by the selective accessibility explanation, the effect of multiple unit price promotions on quantity purchase intentions is shown to be mediated by accessing anchor-consistent knowledge. An agenda for further research and the implications of our findings for retail practice are discussed.     

Consumer perceptions of monetary and non-monetary introductory promotions for new products

Abstract

Little research has examined how consumers respond to sales promotions in new product categories. This article fills this gap by integrating research on reference prices with literature on sales promotions for new product categories. Existing research suggests that consumers respond more favourably to non-monetary promotions (e.g. extra free promotions) than monetary promotions (e.g. price discounts) because non-monetary promotions are framed as segregated gains rather than reduced losses. However, both kinds of promotions are widely used in practice, suggesting the importance of other contributory factors. With a consumer experiment on a national panel of consumers, this research demonstrates that extra free product promotions are most preferred for existing products, and introductory low-price promotions are preferred for innovative products. The moderating effect of a product's innovativeness is explained via a new relationship in the marketing literature, whereby perceived risk mediates the relationship between perceived innovativeness and a consumer's tendency to stockpile.     

中美贸易摩擦的结构效应分析

本文主要利用贸易一般均衡模型反事实模拟量化分析中美可能的全面贸易摩擦对两国出口结构和产业结构的影响。结果表明:中美传统出口优势行业在中美贸易摩擦中受到的负面冲击比较大,中国出口集中度下降,而美国的变化不大;中美全面贸易摩擦将会导致中国制造业的产出份额减少,而初级产业和服务业产出份额增加;美国初级产业的产出份额减少,制造业和服务业的产出份额增加;受关税冲击较为严重的制造业产出份额的减少会导致相关联的生产性服务业产出份额减少。未来中国要增强战略定力和战略自信,积极利用国际规则应对国际贸易摩擦;同时,从产业链、供应链以及创新等方面进一步深化供给侧改革,促进产业结构优化升级。     

Marketing of Banned Pesticides and Unapproved Pharmaceuticals and Unapproved Pharmaceuticals to Developing Countries

The United States sells $3.0 billion of pesticides and $7.0 billion of pharmaceuticals to consumers in export markets. Many of these products are banned and/or unapproved for use within the United States. This perplexing double standard continues to create unique ethical questions for United States based multinational corporations (MNCs) who sell pesticides and pharmaceutical products worldwide. This paper explores the issues related to export sales and how to effectively control and monitor the sale of these products to customers in developing countries.     

中美贸易失衡主因分析

中美两国实现更加平衡的贸易关系对于两国和世界经济极其重要。而中美贸易失衡的不断加剧,则导致双方贸易摩擦频繁发生,影响全球经济强劲、可持续和平衡增长。理论分析和实证检验表明:美对华高技术产品出口管制与中美贸易失衡存在长期稳定的均衡关系,且具有相互促进的"放大效应",出口管制是引发并加剧双边贸易失衡的主要原因。本文认为,本着相互尊重和互利共赢的原则,通过诱制性和强制性方法促使美国付诸实际行动放宽乃至取消高技术产品出口管制,中美贸易失衡将有望解决。     

Prevalence and predictors of bicycle helmet use in a southeastern,US city

Fatalities and head injuries from bicycle-related crashes remain a concern in the United States. Despite legislation in many states, helmet use remains low. This observational study examined the helmet use and related factors in a North Carolina city. The sample consisted of 2088 observations of bicyclists. The objectives were to (1) determine helmet use; (2) describe other safe bicycling practices; and (3) examine the relationship of demographic variables and safe riding practices with helmet use. Helmet use was observed for 25% of the sample. Demographic factors related to helmet use were being female (OR = 1.32), 26 years old or older (OR = 4.94), and White (OR = 2.17). Bicyclists riding on the road with traffic were more likely to wear a helmet than bicyclists riding on the sidewalk (OR = 2.04). Findings indicate that helmet use remains low in the city. Research to monitor, better understand, and promote helmet use is needed.     

The Impact of Price-Based and New Product Promotions on Fast Food Restaurant Sales and Stock Prices

A key tool used in demand or revenue management marketing strategies is the application of pricing tactics based on anticipated demand to enhance both customer utility and maximize firm performance (Wirtz et al., 2003). In the restaurant segment, particularly in quick-service restaurants (QSR), organizations focus on two main promotion formats to attract customers: price-based promotions and new product promotions. The purpose of this article is to explore how the number of price-based promotions and new product promotions influence firm sales growth or decline and change in stock prices. Results suggest that new product promotions can have a significant and positive effect on same store sales, whereas price-based promotions tend to results in lower same-store sales changes and changes in stock price. As an additional control for these results, the study controls for economic and seasonal conditions effects.     

中国对美纺织品服装出口影响因素的实证分析

美国一直是我国重要的纺织品服装的出口市场,本文首先建立回归模型对1989-2010年我国货物贸易出口、实际汇率、北美自由贸易区的建立以及WTO关于纺织品服装协议等因素对我国对美纺织品服装出口影响进行分析,然后利用恒定市场份额模型对中国对美纺织品服装出口增长进行分析,最后提出了相应的结论和建议。     

The African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) and export diversification

This paper explores the effect of the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) on export diversification in Sub-Saharan Africa. The existing empirical studies suggest that AGOA has had a positive effect on the overall volume of trade between Sub-Saharan Africa and the United States. However, the economic development literature emphasizes the importance of export diversification for developing countries; therefore, it is important to understand the effects of AGOA on the extensive margin of trade (i.e. the number of distinct products a country exports). Our empirical results suggest that AGOA does contribute to export diversification, specifically through its apparel provision. Countries that are eligible for the AGOA apparel provision export not only more apparel products, but also more non-apparel products to the USA. Thus, AGOA contributes to export diversification at the extensive margin of trade with the USA.     

The dynamics of exports and R&D in SMEs

A growing body of literature is exploring firm export and R&D activities. However, most studies examine the first one, whilst considering the second as an explanatory variable or vice versa. This paper contributes to this literature by exploring the joint dynamics of exports and R&D using data from a representative sample of small and medium-sized enterprises in Spanish manufacturing over the 1990–2006 period. The results confirm the existence of a strong interdependence between export and R&D activities. Indeed, engaging in export (R&D) activities will increase a firm’s chances of also engaging in R&D (export) activities. This, in turn, increases firms’ chances of succeeding in export (R&D) activities. Additionally, once we control for firm heterogeneity, strong persistence still remains in each activity due to true state dependence. The results are robust in the use of alternative measures of internationalization (i.e. imports) and innovative activities (product and process innovation).     

Bilateral FDI and Canadian Export Activity

This study examines how Canadian exports to a specific trading partner are influenced by outward and inward direct investment flows to/from that country. A gravity-type empirical model guides a dynamic panel analysis which utilizes Organization For Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) country-level data from 1989–2007. Besides refuting the contention that outward foreign direct investment (FDI) displaces exports, the findings also imply a strong role for intra-firm based export growth in response to inward FDI. The analysis is enriched by explicitly accounting for the dominant position of the United States within the context of Canada's overall trade and investment flows.     

基于美国出口管制视角的中美贸易失衡问题研究

出口管制政策是美国长期奉行的一项基本政策,目的在于维护其霸主地位和技术优势。美国对华出口管制政策一直是影响中关贸易关系的重要因素,对双方贸易产生了诸多不良影响。因此,研究美国出口管制政策引起的中美贸易失衡问题有很重要的意义。在明晰了美国对华出口管制政策的基础上,利用实证分析、定量和定性分析等方法研究美国出口管制的错位问题,由此从外交协商、扩大进口、拉动内需、发展多元化市场等多角度探讨我国对于美国出口管制的应对策略。