The Effects of Currency Depreciation on Industry Trade Flows between Malaysia and China

ABSTRACT

This article investigates the impact of real depreciation of ringgit/yuan on Malaysian bilateral trade with her largest trading partner, China, over the period of 1987 to 2013. Using disaggregated import and export data from 39 industries, the results from the bounds testing approach to co-integration and error-correction model reveal that the real bilateral exchange rate has short- and long-run effects in the majority of the industries. However, the short-run effects shift into the long run in nine out of 20 import industries and in 13 out of 20 export industries. Most of these are small industries producing intermediate goods.     

人民币汇率、国内外经济状况与我国贸易收支——基于Markov区制转换VAR模型的实证研究

本文采用1994年到2010年的季度数据,通过将贸易收支分解为一般贸易和加工贸易,运用MSIH(2)-VARX(1)模型研究了在人民币汇率存在升值压力和存在贬值压力两种区制下,人民币汇率和国内外经济状况对我国一般贸易收支和加工贸易收支的影响,并在模型中分析了两次金融危机对我国贸易收支的影响。实证结论表明:(1)1994年第三季度到1998年年底,以及2004年第四季度到2008年第四季度,人民币实际有效汇率存在升值压力;1999年第一季度到2004年第三季度,以及2009年第一季度到2010年第四季度,人民币实际有效汇率存在贬值压力;(2)2008年金融危机对贸易收支的影响要大于1998年金融危机;(3)人民币实际有效汇率对一般贸易收支的影响不存在J曲线效应,而对加工贸易收支的影响存在J曲线效应,但综合起来,人民币实际有效汇率变动对总体贸易收支不产生影响。国内外经济状况对我国贸易收支的影响并不是很显著;(4)人民币实际有效汇率变动将导致我国经济增长的负向响应,即人民币实际有效汇率升值不利于我国经济增长。     

Effect of exchange rate volatility on industry trade flows between Malaysia and China

This paper investigates the impact of ringgit/yuan volatility on Malaysian trade with her largest trading partner, China. The short- and long-run impacts are estimated using bounds testing approach to cointegration analysis and disaggregated bilateral trade data by industry over the period of 1985–2010. Specifically, we considered a total of 151 importing and 24 exporting industries in Malaysia that traded with China. Our finding indicates that cointegration existed in 94 Malaysian import industry models and 16 Malaysian export industry models. Among these cases, exchange rate volatility has short-run effects on majority of the models. However, the short-run effects shift into the long-run effects in 46 out of 69 industries in import models and 5 out of 10 industries in export models. Results indicate that the exchange rate uncertainty has positive effects on majority of these industries.     

Foreign exchange rate and trade balance dynamics in East African countries

This study investigates the effects of real exchange rate on trade balance in East African countries. In contrast to past studies that have often focused on one country in the region and adopted traditional empirical methods that are subject to shortcomings, the present study employed the ARDL procedure and investigated the issue in 10 East African countries. The main results are as follows. First, real exchange depreciation significantly improves trade balance for four countries in individual country estimations, as well as in panel estimation. Second, the elasticity of trade balance with respect to real exchange rate is inelastic. Elasticity slightly increases after exchange rate liberalization but remains inelastic. Third, significant short-run fall was not found for trade balance, which suggests lack of evidence for J-curve relationship     

人民币汇率变动与中国的贸易收支——基于汇率传递视角的实证研究

文章从汇率传递视角探讨了人民币名义有效汇率与贸易收支的关系。结论表明:首先,人民币汇率贬值和升值对贸易收支的影响存在非对称性,人民币升值对初级产品贸易收支、工业制成品贸易收支以及贸易总收支几乎没有影响;人民币贬值对工业制成品贸易收支和贸易总收支均存在显著性的影响,但对初级产品贸易收支没有影响。其次,人民币汇率变动对初级产品的净出口基本没有影响,其主要原因在于中国对金属矿砂、煤、焦炭、石油等主要初级产品的刚性需求以及中国在国际市场上对稀缺资源性产品定价权的缺失与不足。再次,人民币贬值不仅不能增加工业制成品净出口,反而恶化了工业制成品的贸易收支,究其原因,在于占较大比重的机械及运输设备类产品的进出口需求弹性较小。最后,本文在以上结论研究基础之上得到了许多有益启示。     

An explicit partial‐equilibrium model to justify the Generalized Marshall‐Lerner condition (GML)

Robinson's derivation of the Marshall‐Lerner condition (ML) is more general in that she considers a situation where initially the trade balance is not in equilibrium with the incorporation of the supply curves of exporters. This paper examines a partial equilibrium analysis of a country's imports and exports markets within a theoretical model which considers both the demand and supply sides in these two internationally traded‐goods markets. The aim here is to show explicitly how the Generalized Marshall‐Lerner condition (GML) of Robinson can be obtained. We examined the two effects of the nominal depreciation of the domestic currency on the trade balance: the volume effect and the value effect and how they counterbalance each other. We found that the standard Marshall‐Lerner condition (ML) was not sufficient when the trade balance was initially in deficit and it was also not necessary if the trade balance showed an initial surplus. Moreover, this study provides a new interpretation for Robinson’ sufficiency condition where the trade balance must improve following a nominal depreciation of domestic currency when the elasticity of foreign demand exceeds the ratio of imports to exports. This paper also examines the situation of a small open economy which could not influence the world prices where the foreign demand for exports and the foreign supply of exports are infinitely large. Finally, there is a discussion on two policy implications for exchange rate regulation: the amount of devaluation that is necessary to improve a given trade imbalance as a governments intervention and additional support for the slow improvement of the trade balance in the short run after a devaluation policy known as the J‐Curve effect.     

The spillover effects of China's monetary policy shock: Evidence from B&R countries

This paper examines the international spillover effects of China's monetary policy shock on macro and financial variables in 26 countries along the Belt and Road (B&R) from 2000 to 2019. We find that a surprise Chinese monetary tightening brings about a widening in the short-term interest rate spread, a drop in the equity price, nominal depreciation against the RMB and real depreciation, and an improvement in the trade balance, on average, across the 26 B&R countries. Moreover, substantial heterogeneous effects emerge in the responses of the foreign real exchange rate and the trade balance in different groups in terms of the 26 countries' trade weights with China, capital openness, and national income levels. Finally, all the empirical evidence reveals that the expenditure switching effect plays an important role in facilitating the international transmission of China's monetary policy shock.     

人民币实际有效汇率与中国工业制成品对外贸易平衡的长期关系分析

以双边名义汇率为基础 ,对 1978～ 1999年期间人民币的名义和实际有效汇率指数进行测算 ,利用协整技术分析中国工业制成品对贸易平衡指标与我国实际国内生产总值、国外实际收入及人民币实际有效汇率之间存在长期稳定的均衡关系 ,实际的人民币贬值改善了我国工业制成品对外贸易平衡状况。     

Twin deficit or twin divergence? Fiscal policy, current account, and real exchange rate in the U.S.

In spite of concerns about “twin deficits” (fiscal and the current account deficits) for the United States economy, empirical evidence suggests that “twin divergence” is a more usual feature of the historical data, i.e., when fiscal accounts worsen, the current account improves and vice versa. This paper empirically studies the effects of fiscal policy (government budget deficit shocks) on the current account and the real exchange rate, during the flexible exchange rate regime period. Based on VAR (Vector Auto-Regression) models, we identified “exogenous” fiscal policy shocks after controlling for business cycle effects on fiscal balances. In contrast to the predictions of most theoretical models, the U.S. results suggest that an expansionary fiscal policy shock, or a government budget deficit shock, improve the current account and depreciate the real exchange rate. Increases in private savings and declines in investment contribute to the current account improvement while a nominal exchange rate depreciation, as opposed to a relative price level change, is mainly responsible for the real exchange rate depreciation. The “twin divergence” of fiscal balances and current account balances is also explained by the prevalence of output shocks, i.e. output shocks — more than fiscal shocks — appear to drive the co-movements of the current account and the fiscal balance.     

The asymmetric effects of exchange rate fluctuations on output and prices: Evidence from developing countries

This paper examines the asymmetric effects of exchange rate fluctuations on real output and price in developing countries. The theoretical model decomposes movements in the exchange rate into anticipated and unanticipated components. Unanticipated currency fluctuations determine aggregate demand through exports, imports and the demand for domestic currency, and determine aggregate supply through the cost of imported intermediate goods. The evidence indicates that the supply channel leads to output contraction and price inflation in the face of unanticipated currency depreciation. In contrast, the reduction in net exports determines output contraction without reducing price inflation in the face of unanticipated currency appreciation.     

THE IMPACT OF CURRENCY INCONVERTIBILITY ON TRADE FLOWS

This study investigates whether the relationship between the real exchange rate and trade volumes (exports, imports, and the trade balance) differs for countries with and without import restrictions. A theoretical model points out that in countries with import restrictions, the volume of imports is often constrained by the export income. A real depreciation should stimulate exports and then also stimulate imports, as the volume of exports limits the volume of imports. Empirical evidence for a large international sample confirms that trade elasticities with respect to the real exchange rate importantly depend on the presence of trade restrictions. This suggests that earlier work in this area that ignored the importance of such restrictions has been misleading.     

Exchange rate volatility and economic performance in Peru: a firm level analysis

This paper analyzes the impact of the exchange rate volatility on the performance of the Peruvian economy using financial information from 163 non-financial listed firms. We find evidence that, for firms holding dollar-denominated debt, investment decisions are negatively affected by real exchange rate depreciation. The reasons behind this result are: (i) the high degree of liability dollarization and currency mismatch that create the conditions for a balance sheet effect and a financial stress in the aftermath of a currency depreciation; (ii) the strong bank-lending channel that follows and reinforces the balance sheet effect; (iii) the domestic demand shrinkage that affects severely firms’ sales; and (iv) the relatively small and poorly diversified export sector.     

The Real Exchange Rate,the Ghanaian Trade Balance,and the J-curve

Using linear and nonlinear specifications, we studied the effects of real exchange rate changes on the trade balance of Ghana during the period 1986Q1 to 2016Q3. We found no evidence in support of the short- and long-run impact of exchange rate changes on the trade balance in the linear specification. The J-curve is refuted in this case. In contrast, exchange rate changes affected the trade balance in the nonlinear specification. Depreciations improve the trade balance in the long run, but appreciations have no impact. Hence, exchange rate changes have nonlinear effects on the trade balance. This is consistent with the J-curve phenomenon.     

Investigating exchange rate shocks on agricultural trade balance: The case of Tunisia

The paper studies the impact of changes in Tunisia's exchange rate on the net external position of the agricultural sector. It shows that substitutability on production and consumption among domestically produced goods leads to an ambiguous impact for reasons that go beyond the Marshall-Lerner condition. Using cointegration techniques to disentangle the long and short-run impact of changes in the exchange rate on the net agricultural trade balance, we find that the depreciation of the domestic currency leads to a deterioration of the net external position of Tunisia's agricultural sector in the long-run.     

J-curve effect and exchange rate pass-through: an empirical investigation of the united states

The J-curve theory predicts that the balance of trade will initially deteriorate before improving after a currency depreciation. This article finds empirical evidence that some of the 1985-1987 trade balance deterioration can be attributed to this phenomenon. Import exchange rate pass-through was found to have decreased during the 1985-1987 dollar depreciation, mitigating the increase in the trade deficit     

Exchange rate expectations and monetary policy

The adjustment process to a monetary disturbance is studied in a model of perfect capital mobility and flexible exchange rates. Exchange rate expectations are emphasized and used to establish an adjustment process. In the short run, a monetary expansion gives rise to a depreciation in the exchange rate and a reduction in saving due to the terms of trade deterioration. The exchange rate depreciation, in the short run, may be in excess of the long-run depreciation. The trade balance in the short run may worsen. The long-run equilibrium of the analysis conforms to the Mundell-Fleming results that establish the force of monetary policy under flexible rates.     

中美贸易不平衡的均衡、错位及其矫正的实证研究

利用1995-2010年1季度数据,研究中美贸易不平衡的均衡水平、错位程度及其矫正机制。研究发现:长期看,美国经济增长1%、中国经济增长1%、人民币对美元实际汇率贬值1%,导致中国对美贸易顺差分别增加4.46%、0.81%、0.93%;2005年我国的汇率制度改革导致我国对美贸易顺差小幅度增加。中美贸易收支错位的自我修正机制存在,自我修正功能较强。短期看,人民币对美元实际汇率升值、我国货币供给减少、美国政府支出增加、人民币对美元名义汇率贬值,导致我国对美贸易顺差增加。中美贸易不平衡的错位是经常性的,2009-2010年1季度,中美贸易不平衡低于均衡水平。政策含义是:积极转变我国的经济增长方式;长期坚持人民币对美元适度升值;策略性地应对来自美国的人民币升值压力。     

Before the fall: were East Asian currencies overvalued?

Two major approaches to identifying the equilibrium exchange rate are implemented. First, the concept of purchasing power parity (PPP) is tested and used to define the equilibrium real exchange rate for the Hong Kong dollar, Indonesian rupiah, Korean won, Malaysian ringgit, Philippine peso, Singapore dollar, New Taiwanese dollar and the Thai baht. The calculated PPP rates are then used to evaluate whether these seven East Asian currencies were overvalued. A variety of econometric techniques and price deflators are used. As of May 1997, the HK$, baht, ringgit and peso were overvalued according to this criterion. The evidence is mixed regarding the Indonesian rupiah and NT$. Second, a monetary model of exchange rates, augmented by a proxy variable for productivity trends, is estimated for five currencies. An overvaluation for the rupiah and baht is indicated, although only in the latter case is the overvaluation substantial (17%). The won, Singapore dollar and especially the NT$ appear undervalued according to these models.     

Cross-border production sharing and exchange-rate sensitivity of Mexico's trade balance

Increasing patterns of international trade occur in the form of cross-border production sharing – the dispersion of separate blocks of an integrated production process across different nations. In the case of ‘standard’ or ‘ordinary’ trade, imports are destined for use in the importing country, and exports are largely produced within the country. However, with production sharing, imported parts and components are destined for inclusion in the country's exports. A depreciation of a nation's currency raises its exports. At the same time, imported components become more expensive, which partly offsets the expansionary effect of the depreciation on exports. Using a simple theoretical framework, this paper shows that production networks lower the sensitivity of a country's trade balance to changes in exchange rates. The empirical examination finds Mexico's Maquiladora trade balance to be unresponsive to changes in both, its real effective as well as its real peso-dollar rates, while that for non-Maquiladora category is significantly responsive, in confirmation with the theorized hypothesis.     

The Dynamics of Currency,Savings, and Investment Rates

This paper examines the dynamic relations among foreign exchange rates, savings, and investment ratio for a sample of 25 countries from the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. We find that the savings rate and the investment rate are cointegrated of order (1, −1). This result is consistent with the literature on the savings–investment relations and therefore confirms the validity of the Feldstein–Horioka puzzle. Using country‐specific and longitudinal panel vector autoregressive models, we show that historical savings–investment differentials do not help explain foreign exchange rates. We demonstrate, however, that foreign exchange rates and trade balance ratio impact the difference between savings and investments. Specifically, depreciation in the domestic currency would cause the savings–investment difference to widen.