Dispatching trucks for drayage operations

We propose a novel model for dispatching trucks given the constraints and sources of uncertainty that arise in drayage operations. The proposed model is designed to minimize the expected cost and is generally applicable to cases including different distributions of random parameters. Numerical examples illustrate this robustness of the model, as well as the potential for reducing the drayage cost by increasing the available storage capacity and permitted number of terminal truck entries. Mathematical results derived within this paper (e.g. expected dwell time) can be used more generally in analyzing transfers in transportation networks under stochastic conditions.     

Terminal and yard allocation problem for a container transshipment hub with multiple terminals

This paper presents an integer programming model for the terminal and yard allocation problem in a large container transshipment hub with multiple terminals. The model integrates two decisions: terminal allocation for vessels and yard allocation for transshipment container movements within a terminal as well as between terminals. The objective function aims to minimize the total inter-terminal and intra-terminal handling costs generated by transshipment flows. To solve the problem, we develop a 2-level heuristic algorithm to obtain high quality solutions in an efficient way. Computational experiments show the effectiveness of the proposed approach.     

Migration of container terminals as their natural process of evolution: Case study of Gdańsk and Gdynia ports

The paper proposes a theoretical model of container terminals and container port development, based on the life cycle theory, threshold theory and catastrophe theory, and in references to Kuznets' swings (interpreted as waves of infrastructural investments), and Kondratiev long economic waves.The aim of this model is to explain the development process of a container terminal and a port within one technological generation, as well as in intergenerational configuration, and relate it to the migration process of container terminals in the scale of a port-city urban area. Then, the applicability of this model was checked in the case of the container ports in Gdynia and Gdańsk (Poland). The analysed evolution process of ports of Gdynia and Gdańsk conforms with the proposed theoretical model, proving that the migration of container terminals within these ports is a part of their natural process of evolution, being a consequence of their threshold development and location splitting.Considering the physical location of development investments within the container ports of Gdańsk and Gdynia, it was noticed that there are two basic directions of migration of container terminals. One is the migration of the port's main container activity (core terminal or terminals), being a result of a generational change taking place after overcoming the maturity point. The second type of migration is connected with dispersion of port development investments in the increasingly distant port hinterland, caused by the need of the life extension of terminals within one technological generation.In an analogy to the processes of development of living organisms, we can treat the migration of terminal outsourced functions as a “vegetative” increase, being an attempt to extend the life of the terminal, while the migration of the core terminal within the port area (erecting a new generation terminal) can be treated as “generative” growth.     

The strategic berth template problem

A marine container terminal operator may have a situation with excessive calling requests to be served especially when some new service contracts are under consideration. For this situation, we propose a strategic berth template problem (BTPS) that selects the ships among the requesting ones to be served and arrange their berth-windows within a limited planning horizon. The BTPS employs the subgradient optimization procedure, which is an improved version of the procedure that the authors developed for the operational berth allocation problem. A wide variety of numerical experiments indicate the improved subgradient procedure works well for the BTPS.     

The impact of truck arrival information on container terminal rehandling

This paper uses simulation to evaluate the use of truck arrival information to reduce container rehandles during the import container retrieval process by improving terminal operations. A variety of scenarios with different levels of truck information and various container bay configurations are modeled to explore how the information quality and bay configuration affect the magnitude of benefit. The results demonstrate that a complete arrival sequence is not required to substantially reduce rehandles, significant benefit can be obtained under small amounts of information, the benefits grow with the bay size, and that updating information in real time significantly lowers information requirements.     

Effect of block width and storage yard layout on marine container terminal performance

Block widths ranging from two to fifteen rows in a marine container terminal are evaluated by a fully-integrated, discrete event simulation model. Experiments consider dozens of yard configurations and four container terminal settings that are designed to reproduce the microscopic, stochastic, real-time environment at a multiple-berth facility. Results show that the quay crane rate is concave with respect to block width when the yard storage capacity and amount of yard equipment is constant. The optimal block width ranges from 6 to 12 rows depending on the amount of equipment deployed and the size, shape, and throughput of the terminal.     

The impact of container terminal relocation on hinterland geography

This paper presents a mathematical model for calculating the generalized costs resulting from the transportation of containers from multiple locations in a geographical region to different container terminals serving this region. The generalized costs are calculated using a road and rail transport network model, enabling potential hinterlands of terminals in close competition to be delimited, rather than port hinterlands as is more common in the literature. The mathematical model is used in a case study on the consequences of building a new terminal in the port of Lisbon and closing down an existing terminal, implying a terminal relocation between river banks. The model shows that this relocation has significant implications in the delimitation of container terminal potential hinterlands across southern Portugal. Conclusions and policy recommendations regarding the consequences of such relocation are given in terms of relative competitiveness of the different terminals and suitability of the relocation.     

A strategic network choice model for global container flows: specification, estimation and application

Container flows have been booming for decades. Expectations for the 21st century are less certain due to changes in climate and energy policy, increasing congestion and increased mobility of production factors. This paper presents a strategic model for the movement of containers on a global scale in order to analyse possible shifts in future container transport demand and the impacts of transport policies thereon. The model predicts yearly container flows over the world’s shipping routes and passing through 437 container ports around the world, based on trade information to and from all countries, taking into account more than 800 maritime container liner services. The model includes import, export and transhipment flows of containers at ports, as well as hinterland flows. The model was calibrated against observed data and is able to reproduce port throughput statistics rather accurately. The paper also introduces a scenario analysis to understand the impact of future, uncertain developments in container flows on port throughput. The scenarios include the effects of slow steaming, an increase in land based shipping costs and an increased use of large scale infrastructures such as the Trans-Siberian rail line and the opening of Arctic shipping routes. These scenarios provide an indication of the uncertainty on the expected port throughputs, with a particular focus on the port of Rotterdam in the Netherlands.     

The adaptive capacity of container ports in an era of mega vessels: The case of upstream seaports Antwerp and Hamburg

Port system development is a key theme in port geography literature. Recent decades have brought a rise in container terminal development at estuarine, coastal and offshore port locations, in part driven by scale increases in vessel size. This paper examines how container ports located upstream on rivers use processes of adaptive capacity building in an attempt to remain competitive in port systems. We link the development path of upstream seaports to a range of economic, technological, social and political factors. When combined, these factors shape the willingness and capacity of an upstream seaport to adapt to changing conditions such as an increasing demand for nautical accessibility. The case study results on Antwerp and Hamburg show that the discussion on the future of these upstream seaports cannot be detached from broader public policy and stakeholder management concerns and the influences of retention mechanisms, power, politics and collective action by the port community.     

Dynamics of liner shipping network and port connectivity in supply chain systems: analysis on East Asia

The study of ports in supply chain systems is an emerging area of importance which has drawn more attention from researchers in recent years. This paper presents a new perspective in this research area by examining the calling patterns of container shipping services in order to understand the dynamics of port connectivity and inter-port relationships in the supply chains. Empirical evidence is drawn from four major ports in East Asia, namely Shanghai, Busan, Kaohsiung and Ningbo. The study identifies the shipping capacity, trade routes and geographical regions connected to the ports, shipping lines involved, and the extensity and intensity of inter-port relationships among the four container ports from liner shipping network’s perspective. The findings show that most of the shipping capacity employed on the major east–west trade routes became non-exclusive and involved calls at two or more of the four ports. Port planners, terminal operators and carriers could capitalise on opportunities through exploitation of complementary relationships that exist among the selected ports, such as offering a package for shipping lines to call at a portfolio of terminals owned by the same terminal operator. Policy and research implications as well as recommendations are discussed for various stakeholders concerned with port planning and regional development.     

多因素模糊决策在集装箱中心站选址中的应用

对铁路集装箱中心站的站址选择,提出基于变权法的多因素Fuzzy决策。在论述变权法及多因素模糊决策原理的基础上,给出了基于变权的模糊决策方法,并以兰州枢纽地区为例,对集装箱中心站选址的选择确定,进行了实例计算,分析了变权综合值和常权综合值的影响因素。     

Spatial,temporal and institutional characteristics of entry strategies in inland container terminals: A comparison between Yangtze River and Rhine River

Recent decades have brought a growing commitment of investors in the (co-)funding and management of inland terminals, particularly container terminals. However, the actors involved, the forms of third-party entry and the emerging partnerships in inland terminals have only been investigated on a fragmented basis in inland port research. To complement existing inland port research on governance, management and spatial development, this paper analyses entry strategies of actors in inland container terminals on the Rhine and Yangtze in terms of their spatial, temporal and institutional characteristics. The unit of analysis in this paper is the inland container terminal, not necessarily the entire inland port (which might have more than one terminal). The entry strategies and the drivers behind these strategies are examined using a conceptual framework focused on five questions, i.e. who, where, when, why and which way. The empirical application is based on a large dataset of all container terminals on the Rhine and Yangtze. Our findings suggest clear differences between the two rivers in terms of the type of operators, the sequence of inland port development and also the major actors shaping the inland terminal landscape. Despite these differences, there is also some level of similarity, including a low presence of international players, the absence of deepsea (landlord) port authorities and observed waves of single acquisition, multiple-site acquisition, and capital entry in the terminals. Government policies, institutional frameworks and the nature of shipping network development are determinants of inland port investment and the entry strategies adopted by relevant actors. The findings contribute to a better understanding of the drivers and contextual environment guiding entry strategies in inland ports and can help policy makers and port operators in inland rivers to assess and benchmark their strategy. The paper adds to existing literature by considering spatiotemporal aspects of terminal ownership and the strategic considerations of and institutional drivers and impediments to the inland terminal strategies of the corresponding actors.     

Negotiating truck arrival times among trucking companies and a container terminal

Congestion of trucks in port areas has created serious environmental and traffic problems in many countries. One of main reasons for congestion is the concentrated arrivals of road trucks at peak hours. A negotiation process for smoothing truck arrivals in peak hours among multiple trucking companies and a terminal is addressed. The negotiation process is to be used for the appointment system for road trucks in container terminals. This paper suggests a mathematical formulation for smoothing the peaks in arrivals considering the inconvenience of trucks from changing their arrival times and the waiting cost of trucks in peak hours. This study proposes a decentralized decision-making model to support the negotiation process between truck companies and the terminal operator. It gives an acceptable solution to every player involved as well as the near optimal solution to the entire system from the global point of view. Numerical experiments are performed to validate the approach in this study.     

World maritime cities: From which cities do container shipping companies make decisions?

In recent decades, many researchers have devoted themselves to the study of world cities. One of the most important contributions to world city research has come from the Globalisation and World Cities Study Group & Network (GaWC-Loughborough University). GaWC focuses on external relationships between world cities. It has analysed the world city network and the hierarchy between cities in various sectors, but primarily in advanced producer services (accountancy, advertising, banking/finance and law). Previous studies have identified London, New York, Paris and Tokyo as high-level global service centres, followed closely by Chicago, Frankfurt, Hong Kong, Los Angeles, Milan and Singapore. Thus far, however, the maritime sector has been neglected in the identification and analysis of global cities. The main purpose of the present article is to fill this void.The first part of our analysis includes a study of the literature on world cities and an examination of the criteria and methods on which previous research has been based. In part II, we explore the world maritime city network by applying and interpreting the GaWC methods. For a city to be recognised as a world maritime city, it must have a presence of container shipping companies and container terminal operators. As for the city's operational capacity, that is determined by the extent of linkages between those container shipping companies and container terminal operators, on the one hand, and the rest of the world maritime market, on the other hand. The collected empirical evidence shows that Hong Kong, Hamburg, Singapore, Shanghai, Tokyo, New Jersey/New York, Bangkok/Laem Chabang and London are the world's leading maritime cities. Furthermore, analysis of interrelations in these cities between shipping companies and container terminal has indicated Hong Kong, Hamburg and New York to be the main nodes in the world maritime city network.     

The spatial coverage of shipping lines and container terminal operators

The aim of this paper is to provide a quantitative basis for the discussions about globalization of carriers and container terminal operators. A measuring framework is developed that allows for the comparison of the distribution of ship carrying capacity across various regions, and the comparison of the distribution of terminal throughput worldwide. This approach also allows the investigation of the degree to which liner shipping networks match related terminal portfolios.The main outcomes highlight significant differences between the geographical scope of liner networks, and between the coverage of corresponding terminal portfolios. Interesting results emerge from the matching of networks of integrated operators: early-movers such as Maersk and latecomers such as MSC have very different levels of vertical integration.     

Optimising the container transhipment hub location in northern Europe

This paper applies a specific research methodology designed to evaluate and compare competing seaport locations within a given region as the optimal site for international container transhipment activity. The main focus is on container transhipment hub locations in northern Europe. Transhipment is the fastest growing segment of the containerport market, resulting in significant scope to develop new transhipment terminal capacity to cater for future expected traffic flows. Transport distances and associated shipping costs are calculated for existing hub locations and these are then compared with a new proposed transhipment location in the region, in this instance the vast natural deep-water harbour at Scapa Flow in the Orkney Islands. Findings from the research demonstrate that current container hub ports are not necessarily optimal (for serving transhipment markets), and that alternative port sites such as Scapa Flow could provide a superior and more competitive location from which to support the fast expanding transhipment markets of northern Europe.     

The simultaneous berth and quay crane allocation problem

This paper addresses efficient berth and crane allocation scheduling at a multi-user container terminal. First, we introduce a formulation for the simultaneous berth and crane allocation problem. Next, by employing genetic algorithm we develop a heuristic to find an approximate solution for the problem. The fitness value of a chromosome is obtained by crane transfer scheduling across berths, which is determined by a maximum flow problem-based algorithm based on a berth allocation problem solution defined by the chromosome. The results of numerical experiments show that the proposed heuristic is applicable to solve this difficult but essential terminal operation problem.     

Container storage and transshipment marine terminals

This study addresses the storage arrangement of transshipment containers on a container yard, in order to carry out efficiently the ship handling operations at a terminal where mega-containerships call. An optimization model is specified to investigate the flow of containers from the mega-containership to feeder ships using intermediate storage at the yard. A heuristic based on the lagrangian relaxation is formulated. The quality of the heuristic approach is tested in a number of experiments. In the experiments, various situations are analyzed with respect to mega-containership arrival rates, some strategies for stack arrangements and terminal layouts.     

Global change, local pain: intermodal seaport terminals and their service areas

The creation of global shipping alliances and the trend to post-Panamax container ships have put pressure on seaports to respond in such a way as to guarantee the continued success of intermodal terminals. This paper points out the globalisation that is taking place in container shipping and how ports are responding. Emphasis is put on terminal improvements in the form of post-Panamax cranes and on the nature of competition in the service areas of ports. Halifax and Vancouver are used as examples of ports trying to adapt in the new age of containerisation.     

Comparison of solution approaches for the train load planning problem in seaport terminals

In this paper the train load planning problem arising in a seaport container terminal is considered. This problem consists in determining the optimal assignment of containers to wagon slots in order to maximize the train utilization and, at the same time, to minimize unproductive operations in the terminal. Different solution approaches based on a mathematical programming model are compared. The best solution procedure, satisfactory both in terms of quality of the obtained solutions and for the computational times, is identified through extensive experimental tests. This procedure could be included in a planning tool to be used in real seaport terminals.