Parents’ knowledge,behaviour and concerns of food chemical hazards: Korean mothers sending their preschool‐aged children to child care centres

Although incidences of foodborne illness caused by chemical hazards are increasing, the studies on public awareness of food chemical hazards are limited. This study was conducted to assess mothers’ knowledge, behaviour and concerns on diverse food chemical hazards. A total of 960 mothers sending their preschool‐aged children to child care centres in Gwanak‐Gu, Seoul, Korea were surveyed, and 633 (65.9%) returned the questionnaires. After excluding inappropriate questionnaires, 364 (37.9%) were analysed. The majority of the mothers were able to identify food categories containing acrylamide (83.2%) and trans fat (80.2%), while slightly over half of the mothers named food categories containing allergen (56.3%) or pesticide residues (57.1%). Less than two thirds of mothers were knowledgeable of human exposure pathway to environmental contaminants (59.3%), acrylamide (55.2%) or heavy metals (65.9%). A significant number of mothers showed familiarity on health risk from dietary exposure to environmental contaminants (82.4%), trans fat (91.5%) or heavy metals (96.7%) (P < 0.05). The data on safe food behaviour towards environmental contaminants (81.8%), acrylamide (98.0%), heavy metals (96.7%) and trans fat (90.6%) showed high levels of right behaviours. About 47.2% and 22.8% of mothers read label of food additives and ingredient statement on allergen when purchasing processed foods, respectively. Mothers seemed to be concerned about food chemical hazards. Among the sociodemographic characteristics, only age significantly differentiated mothers’ concerns on chemical hazards in foods (P < 0.05). This study suggests that mothers needed to be educated on food chemical hazards regardless of their education levels, occupation status or the number of child.     

Home-related injuries among under-five-year children and mothers' care regarding injury prevention in rural areas

This cross-sectional study was conducted in rural areas of Twiserkan (Toyserkan) County, in Iran, to assess factors associated with home-related injuries among under-five-year children and their mothers’ care regarding injury prevention. Mothers who had their under-five-year-old children injured within a 12-month period were identified from recorded information in Twiserkan Health Center. Then, data were gathered using pre-tested questionnaire and through interview with injured children's mothers. The questions were about characteristics of the children's injuries and their mothers’ care regarding injury prevention, using PRECEDE (Predisposing, Reinforcing, and Enabling Constructs in Educational/Environmental Diagnosis and Evaluation) model with focus on knowledge and attitude; enabling and reinforcing factors; and mothers' preventive behaviours. The study results showed that 197 out of 210 total identified mothers took part in the study. The reported injuries were 11.68%, 39.09%, and 49.24%, respectively, for severe, moderate, and mild cases. Fall was the most frequent injury with 35%. Among PRECEDE model constructs, there was a statistically significant correlation between mothers' knowledge and injury severity among children. Home-related injuries are an important health problem among study population and their prediction and prevention are necessary. Enhancement of mothers’ knowledge can be helpful to improve child injury prevention.     

Effect of caregiver feeding behaviours on child nutritional status in rural Ghana

A six‐month observational study involving 100 mothers with infants between the ages of 6 and 12 months was conducted in the Manya Krobo district of Ghana. The objective was to assess the role of caregiver feeding behaviours on child nutritional status using a modified positive deviance approach. Each child was in the study for 6 months, during which they were observed at home once a month. On each visit, data were collected on the child anthropometry, child meal frequency, diet diversity, responsiveness of caregiver during feeding, child’s appetite and feeding atmosphere as well as caregiver hygienic practices related to feeding. Using weight‐for‐age (WAZ) and length‐for‐age (LAZ) scores, the children were classified as positive or negative deviant children. The study revealed significant differences between the two groups of children in terms of caregiver feeding behaviours. Positive deviant children had significantly higher meal frequencies (3.1 ± 0.4 vs. 2.4 ± 0.6, P = 0.001), diet diversity scores (6.3 ± 0.6 vs. 3.7 ± 1.1, P = 0.001), were fed under better hygienic conditions (7.2 ± 0.9 vs. 4.2 ± 1.1, P = 0.001) and were much more interested in food during feeding (85.8% vs. 59.3%). Caregiver responsiveness during feeding was also significantly higher among the positive deviant group (6.5 ± 0.8 vs. 4.5 ± 0.9, P = 0.001). This study has demonstrated the tremendous effect of caregiver feeding behaviours on child nutritional outcomes and provides a scientific basis for introducing care during feeding as a component of intervention to improve child nutritional status in Ghana.     

Parental work status and children's dietary consumption: Australian evidence

This study investigated associations between parents' work status and the dietary consumption patterns of Australian children, and whether such associations vary by parental education and usage of nonparental childcare. Data from the longitudinal study of Australian children at two waves from ages 2–3 years (n = 4601) to 4–5 years (n = 4381) were analysed. Logistic regression models were used to calculate odds ratios of children consuming (≥1 times/day) fruit and vegetables (FV), high fat foods (HFF), high sugar drinks (HSD), as well as evaluating the incidence of breakfast consumption. This was analysed against the employment status of parents including full‐time, part‐time and unemployed. Children of part‐time employed mothers were more likely to consume breakfast, and less likely to consume HSD compared with children of full‐time employed mothers. Children of part‐time employed fathers were less likely to consume FV and breakfast, and more likely to consume HSD compared with children of full‐time employed fathers. Children of nonemployed mothers were more likely to consume HFF, whilst those of nonemployed fathers were more likely to consume HSD and less likely to consume breakfast compared with other children. Amongst less‐educated parents, children of unemployed and part‐time employed parents were more likely to consume HFF and HSD and less likely to consume FV and breakfast compared with children of full‐time employed parents. Amongst highly educated parents, children of unemployed and part‐time employed mothers were less likely to consume HSD compared with children of full‐time employed mothers. Children of part‐time employed mothers who used family day care, day care centres and grandparent care were less likely to consume HSD and more likely to consume breakfast compared with children of full‐time employed mothers. Children of part‐time employed fathers and unemployed parents who used day care centres and grandparent care were less likely to consume FV and more likely to consume HFF compared with children of full‐time employed parents. Future studies should pursue a better understanding of the mechanisms for the adverse effects of parental work status on dietary consumption to develop and enhance specific interventions targeting these groups.     

Hong Kong parents' perceptions of the transference of food preparation skills

Food preparation skills among young adults are associated with healthy food choices, better diets and a greater likelihood of an independent, healthy adult life. This study conducted in Hong Kong aimed to investigate parents' perceptions of cooking skills; to explore the transference of cooking skills in the home setting; to identify parents' expectations regarding the transference of cooking skills; and to inform the development of educational initiatives for developing healthy eating habits. A questionnaire survey was conducted to collect information of the subjects' cooking experience, attitudes about cooking skills, cooking habits at home, family meal habits, transference of cooking culture in the family and the factors influencing the choice of ingredients and cooking. It was administered to 1009 Hong Kong parents (of students aged between 11 and 18, studying in 15 secondary schools). The collected data were analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (version 12.0, SPSS, Inc., Chicago, IL, USA) and cross‐tabulation analyses were used to compare the responses of the parents by gender, employment status and income. The results show that parents valued cooking as important life skills for both boys and girls. Parents generally perceived their cooking skills either good (41.9%) or mediocre (54.5%), yet children are rarely taught these skills in the home. Family meals prepared primarily with fresh ingredients are still an important part of the daily routine, and mothers are dominating the roles in food choice decision, cooking and buying the ingredients for family meals. Mothers and schools are expected to be the major channel to teach children cooking skills. Findings suggest that parents are well‐disposed towards providing food and nutrition education at home, but need more support (50% reported that home should be a primary support for learning cooking skills; 36% indicated that the school should have a responsibility to teach children to cook starting in elementary school). Schools may do well to collaborate with families in food literacy education initiatives. Developing individuals' cooking skills paves the way for long‐term health benefits and the well‐being of the local population.     

Pre‐schoolers,parents and supermarkets: co‐shopping as a social practice

The objective of this paper was to examine the co‐shopping practices of children and parents in supermarkets, i.e. the practical enactment of grocery shopping. Our special focus is on how informal consumer training occurs during parent–child interaction. We use observational data collected in spring 2008 in different Estonian supermarkets, post‐shopping interviews with parents and focus group interviews with their children. Our analysis is informed by practice theory, which helps to look in detail at how the activities in a particular situation are coordinated by understandings and procedures, and are guided by the engagement in a particular shopping trip. Co‐shopping interactions mostly revolve around particular material objects, although not exclusively. Product choice is a deeply contested area, where both parents and children face numerous pressures in this situation of two‐way socialization. There are implications for consumer education more broadly. To accomplish lasting and meaningful effects on the everyday lives of families, there has to be a wider range of actors – supermarkets, producers, governmental bodies, schools and families – who care about both formal and informal consumer education.     

Development and Validation of a Simulated Market to Test Children for Selected Consumer Skills

This study investigated use of selected consumer skills by children of two ages. A simulated market was developed and used to determine each participating child's level of consumer competence. It was found that (a) children learn consumer skills by being given opportunities to participate in consumer decision-making and sharing family responsibilities, (b) too little or excessive time spent in market search lessened the chance of obtaining a best buy, and (c) although children can and do learn to be consumers early, some skills depend upon maturation and use of education.     

If it is good for the child’s development then I say yes almost every time: how parents relate to their children’s consumption

The article looks into how parents see their children’s consumption. The data material consist of focus group interviews with parents and children living in relatively affluent Scandinavian society. The result shows that parents are not necessarily negative towards their children’s consumption, and in some fields they are willing to spend more than the children expect or want. Parents have two approaches towards their children’s consumption. The child perspective puts the child in the centre with the child’s need for development and protection. The consumer critical discourse dominates and children are seen as vulnerable. In many situations parents will stretch beyond the children’s expectations if they see the consumption as useful. In the parent’s perspective parental skills is exhibited. The parent’s economic status as well as their parental skills and competence are exhibited, and the child’s consumption demonstrates if you are caring and responsible parents.     

The impact of ethical concerns on family consumer decision‐making

Ethical consumerism and family consumer decision‐making, including the influence of children in this area, are spheres of consumer behaviour in which a substantial amount of academic research has already been undertaken. However, the crossover of these two areas is as yet under‐researched, as well as the level of pester power parents are subjected to from children aged 3 and under. This paper uses qualitative methods to investigate the issues surrounding the ethical consumer decision‐making process with families who have children aged 3 years old or under. This research found that the motivation to pursue an ethical lifestyle varied across the sample, but the emergence of an ‘inheritance factor’, where parents are awakened to ethical issues because of the birth of their child, was prominent. Other issues that transpired from this research include the prominence of ethical trade‐offs in consumer decision‐making, ethical choices as normalizing behaviour and finally the presence of pester power in the ethical context. Ethical consumerism strongly emerged as an integral part of the parent's identity construction, especially for the mothers as they struggled to adapt to their new roles. Further research delving into the role ethical choices have on identity construction and the parental response to pester power would be a valuable addition to the overall context of this research.     

A situational analysis of consumer science skills used to improve incomes and create self‐employment in the Limpopo province,South Africa

A two‐phase study was conducted in the Mopani and Vhembe Districts of the Limpopo Province of South Africa to identify types of small‐scale businesses used by households to improve their income. The study sample was made up of 240 households from 16 villages and members from 16 organizations working with households in small‐scale, business‐related activities. Phase one of the study collected data on the types of small‐scale businesses carried out by households and organizations assisting them. Phase two developed training manuals and offered training to households. The findings revealed that self‐employment from sales of prepared and processed foods provided the main source of income for most households. Clothing and needlework and housing and art/craft were also used by families to generate income. Problems experienced included lack of technical/management skills, lack of marketing/business skills, inadequate operational funds, low profit margins, unavailability of raw materials and competition from big businesses. The findings highlighted the importance of consumer science‐related skills in poverty alleviation programmes targeting low‐resource households.     

Why Do We Read On‐Pack Nutrition Information so Differently? A Typology of Reading Heuristics Based on Food Consumption Goals

While prior research has extensively studied nutrition labeling use and consumer errors of judgment in the nutrition evaluation process, less attention has been paid to the consumer motivations that simplify the reading of on‐pack nutrition information. To address this gap, this study examines how food consumption goals affect consumer reading of this information. On the basis of a qualitative study, eight food consumption goals have been identified and classified into four types of motivations which impact reading behaviors: “Food Optimization,” “Food Regulation,” “Food Gratification,” and “Food as Mere Necessity.” From this typology, we derive eight on‐pack nutrition information reading heuristics as well as specific inference biases resulting from these simplifying reading strategies. This research also provides guidelines for policymakers so that nutritional messages given to consumers will be more targeted in order to promote better reading of on‐pack nutrition information at the point of sales.     

Consumer socialization of preschoolers and kindergartners as related to clothing consumption

This study investigated the clothing selections for purchase of preschool and kindergarten-aged children in a midsized southern city. The theory of consumer socialization provided framework for the study. Seven hundred questionnaires were distributed to parents/ guardians of 3-, 4-, 5-, and 6-year-old children at public and private schools and preschools. A total of 314 usable questionnaires were completed by mothers, yielding a 45% response rate. T tests, ANOVA, and frequencies were used to analyze data. The effects of demographic variables were investigated in relation to three consumer socialization constructs. Findings indicated that consumer socialization of children begins at an early age and is related to selected demographic characteristics. Results of this study are important for those involved in the children's wear business, as well as for clothing and retailing educators. © 1993 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Consumer debt attitudes: The role of gender,debt knowledge and skills

The link between financial attitudes and consumer financial market behaviour is well documented. However, little is known about the role of financial knowledge and skills—the main components of the financial literacy construct—in shaping debt attitudes. This link is especially absent from the gender perspective. This study focuses on consumer debt literacy and debt attitudes. A representative sample of adult Poles (N = 1,004) was participated in a computer‐assisted telephone interview. Latent class analysis was employed to reveal their debt attitudes, and subsequently, links between debt literacy and debt attitudes were studied with multinomial regression models. The results show that respondents in Poland can be grouped into five classes exhibiting different attitude profiles. The structure of debt attitudes is complex and differs from a simple unidimensional pro‐debt/ anti‐debt construct. Although this study did not find significant gender differences either in the conceptualization of debt attitudes or in their drivers, the results showed that in all but one class, consumer attitudes are strongly linked to either debt knowledge or debt skills or to both. Debt skills were revealed to be a particularly strong predictor of consumer debt attitudes.     

An analysis of child consumers in Turkey

This research was conducted on 402 children going to kindergarten and primary schools with the purpose of analysing the children's interests, responsibilities, economic resources, purchasing activities, and socialization agents and purchase influences as consumers. Data were collected using a questionnaire, which was prepared by considering some previous research. The questionnaire was applied to subjects through face‐to‐face individual interview. The data were analysed by using explanatory variables, including age, gender, socio‐economic status and family type. Findings indicated that consumer socialization of children was connected to selected demographic characteristics, especially age, and they were surprisingly independent and influential consumers. The results of this study are important for those involved in children's and adults’ markets, and for consumer educators.     

The way we live: understanding the acquisition of living skills to facilitate the consumer empowerment of young people in the 21st century

This research seeks to understand the perceived sources of acquisition of living skills by young people and to examine the formal and informal channels of acquisition. The study focuses particularly on the concept of living skills. These are the skills of transition, of growing up, and independence. For the purpose of the research the skills investigated are those associated (or formerly associated) with the school subject of Home Economics and were distilled from past curricula and documentation (DES, 1985; SCP, 1971). They cover three types of skill: social/interpersonal, cognitive and manual. Social skills include awareness of others, and a sense of responsibility, which is the basis of child‐care and showing tolerance of and concern and consideration for others. Cognitive skills are those associated with decision‐making and management, they involve thinking, reasoning and the use of knowledge. Manual skills are concerned with the use of the hands, with dexterity and with the achievement of specific goals, for example the ability to use tools and appliances with emphasis on the safe handling of them. They can also be linked to knowledge in terms of, for example aspects of food safety and hygiene. Research to date has failed to tackle the concept of acquisition of the skills of transition from home to independent living. Most research is focused on skills pertaining to a particular occupation role (Newman and Newman, 1988; Blustein et al., 1989; Nurmi et al., 1994) rather than those of living skills. Respondents were asked where they had learnt most about manual, cognitive and social skills. To facilitate analysis the channels were condensed to family (mother, father, other family members), community (friends, voluntary organisations), self (trial and error, television, books and magazines), taught (at school, university and work), with a final category of ‘never learnt’ (categories adapted from Macbeth, 1989). The findings revealed that the perceived acquisition of these living skills was through informal channels. From this research it can be argued that the family, being the main perceived source of acquisition of living skills creates the right time, the right place and facilitates exchange efficiencies. However, in this over‐dependence on an informal framework it is unlikely that discrepancies of skill provision can be alleviated. Additionally, standardisation may be difficult if not impossible to achieve. Compounding this is the tendency of young people to have to resort to self‐learning, which it could be argued is acceptable for some skills but not for those reliant on correct information input (such as food hygiene and nutrition).     

Consumers' interest in learning about cooking: the influence of age,gender and education

General and governmental interest in cooking has increased recently. In part this may be because the acquisition of food preparation skills may make individuals less dependent on processed foods and reduce risks of overweight and obesity. However, little research has been conducted on consumers' interests in learning about cooking. Therefore in 2012 an online survey was conducted in Australia among 1023 adult food preparers with the aim of determining what and how they wanted to learn to cook. Questions were asked about interest in learning about cooking‐related topics, specific main meals and cooking techniques, preferred ways to learn, and their demographic characteristics. Frequency and cross‐tabulation analyses were used to compare the responses across demographic categories, and content and correspondence analyses were used to analyse meal preferences and age‐related differences. The findings show that 71% of the sample wanted to learn more about cooking. Respondents wanted to learn to cook a wide range of evening meals, especially ethnic dishes (e.g. Chinese, Thai, Italian, ‘Asian’). Most preferred to learn from television (68%), newspapers and magazines (41%), although attendance at cooking classes (34%), YouTube (27%) and special newsletters (24%) were also popular. There were few, weak associations between interest in cooking and the respondents' demographic characteristics. The findings are discussed in relation to the common problems faced by all domestic food preparers and the major opportunities to communicate about cooking.     

Repertoire of strategies used by French Canadian mothers living in Montreal to pressure their 10‐year‐old children to eat

This study is concerned with mothers’ use of strategies directed toward their 10‐year‐old children to pressure them to eat. The objective is to document the repertoire of strategies and their context of use. This child‐feeding practice is of interest because of its impact on the child's opportunities for the development of self‐control based on responsiveness to hunger and satiety cues. A total of 24 interviews and one focus group were conducted with French Canadian mothers. Data analyses reveal four major themes associated with the contexts in which pressure to eat were used: food purchasing, food preparation, meal service, food consumption. Strategies related to the context of food purchasing stress the importance of children's influence on family decisions. The strategies used at the time of preparation of meals illustrate the burden of tasks a mother takes on to ensure that her child consumes a particular food. With regard to meal service, very few strategies take into account the appetite of the child. Finally, the variety of strategies deployed at the time of consumption of foods supports the importance of informing parents of the undesirable effect of techniques associated with forcing the child to eat. Avenues for future research are presented.     

Are the self-employed really jacks-of-all-trades? Testing the assumptions and implications of Lazear’s theory of entrepreneurship with German data

Using a large representative German data set and various concepts of self-employment, this paper tests the “jack-of-all-trades” view of entrepreneurship by Lazear (Am Econ Rev 94(2): 208–211, 2004). Consistent with its theoretical assumptions we find that self-employed individuals perform more tasks and that their work requires more skills than that of paid employees. In contrast to Lazear’s assumptions, however, self-employed individuals do not just need more basic but also more expert skills than employees. Our results also provide rather limited support for the idea that human capital investment patterns differ between those who become self-employed and those ending up in paid employment.     

Intergenerational Influence in Consumer Deal Proneness

Although there has been ample research on the correlates of consumer deal proneness, there has been little research on how deal proneness develops. In two studies of parent/adult–child dyads, considerable parent–child similarity both in overall deal proneness and in the pattern of preferences for particular types of sales promotions was found. Further, the second of these two studies indicates that parent–child similarity is mediated by communication between parents and their children and tends to be stronger among parents with a permissive parenting style. These results provide evidence that consumer enthusiasm for sales promotions is, to at least some extent, transmitted from parents to their children.