On automated e‐business negotiations: Goal,policy, strategy,and plans of decision and action

In recent years, there has been increasing interest in automated e‐business negotiations. The automation of negotiation requires a decision model to capture the negotiation knowledge of policymakers and negotiation experts so that the decision‐making process can be carried out automatically. Current research on automated e‐business negotiations has focused on defining low‐level tactics (or negotiation rules) so that automated negotiation systems can carry out automated negotiation processes. These low‐level tactics are usually defined from a technical perspective, not from a business perspective. There is a gap between high‐level business negotiation goals and low‐level tactics. In this article, we distinguish the concepts of negotiation context, negotiation goals, negotiation strategy, and negotiation tactics and introduce a formal decision model to show the relations among these concepts. We show how high‐level negotiation goals can be formally mapped to low‐level tactics that can be used to affect the behavior of a negotiation system during the negotiation process. In business, a business organization faces different negotiation situations (or contexts) and determines different sets of goals for different negotiation contexts. In our decision model, a business policymaker sets negotiation goals from different perspectives, which are called goal dimensions. A negotiation policy is a functional mapping from a negotiation context to some quantitative measures (or goal values) for the goal dimensions to express how competitive the policymaker wants to reach that set of goals. A negotiation expert who has the experience and expertise to conduct negotiations would define the negotiation strategies needed for reaching the negotiation goals. Formally, a negotiation strategy is a functional mapping from a set of goal values to a set of decision‐action rules that implement negotiation tactics. The selected decision‐action rules can then be used to control the execution of an automated negotiation system, which conducts a negotiation on behalf of a business organization.     

Negotiation beliefs: Comparing Americans and the Chinese

We address the micro foundations of international business research by examining negotiation beliefs as a parsimonious guide for international business negotiators. We conceptualise the construct of ‘negotiation beliefs’ as a negotiator’s cognition about the nature of negotiation and effective negotiation strategies. We integrate the negotiation literature and empirically investigate the differences and similarities in the negotiation beliefs of Americans and the Chinese. Across two studies, we conduct a conceptual analysis of negotiation beliefs and develop measures for the culturally similar and culturally different factors of the negotiation beliefs of Chinese and American negotiators. We find that negotiation beliefs can predict negotiation outcomes. Our findings indicate that Americans and the Chinese share negotiation beliefs about cooperation and competition. They also understand negotiation using culturally different factors, namely hierarchy and relationship for the Chinese and economic interest and confrontation for the Americans. We further discuss the theoretical and practical implications for international negotiations, particularly regarding disputes between the US and China.     

模拟谈判法在国际商务谈判教学中的应用研究

模拟谈判法是在国际商务谈判实践教学中行之有效的教学方法之一。模拟谈判法的实施过程包括选择模拟谈判案例、合理分组、模拟谈判前的准备工作、实施模拟谈判、教师点评与总结、谈判报告的完善与提交六大步骤。目前的模拟谈判教学实践在课程设置、教学条件、学生掌握程度和运用能力等方面仍存在问题,应从建立专门的谈判室、提高教师的综合水平、加强英语在模拟谈判中的使用、提高实训考核所占比例等方面加以改善。     

Negotiation protocol based on ordered weighted averaging and Fuzzy metrics

ABSTRACT

Negotiation Support Systems are used to exchange offers and to improve the negotiation process. Some methods are based on perspectives like heuristics in order to bring the negotiation protocol gradually closer to reality. These approaches can be important in real negotiation as they can help to improve skillsespecially in distributive bargaining. This paper proposes a Negotiation Support framework to provide the negotiator with recommendations on making decisions in a negotiation process. To input this idea into negotiation protocols, this paper suggests that some concepts based on OWA (Ordered Weighted Averaging) and some of its metrics (Orness, Dispersion) be included in the heuristics of a structured negotiation schedule. It is expected that the support provided will aid the negotiator to make decisions during the negotiation process, to learn from the elicitation and his own behavior the results obtained can help the negotiator improving his skills in the negotiation process.     

WTO农业谈判中国家利益集团的稳定性研究

WTO新一轮农业谈判"多哈回合"中呈现出一个新特点:国家组成了数量众多的国家利益集团,积极谋求对谈判产生影响,由以往的国家之间的谈判方式转为以集团间的谈判为中心的谈判方式。国家利益集团是一个松散的谈判集团,没有约束机制,稳定性是集团面临的主要问题,它关系到集团成员在谈判中的影响力和地位。文章主要对国家利益集团的稳定性进行分析,探讨影响稳定性的因素以及G20的稳定性,探讨中国作为G20集团核心成员在集团中的策略选择。     

Evaluations of Tactics for Automated Negotiations

Automated negotiation under the infrastructure of e-commerce is becoming an important issue. However, although the communication protocols and frameworks of automated negotiation have been extensively investigated, the corresponding tactics and strategies are still underdeveloped and need to be evaluated further. Based on the negotiation model proposed by Faratin et al., this paper examines the performance of automated negotiation tactics and intends to provide concise suggestions for the users of automated negotiation. First, theoretical analysis is used to evaluate the behavior-dependent tactics. Constructive conclusions are obtained when single-issue negotiations are considered. Next, a new framework for applying single-issue tactics to multi-issue negotiation is proposed. Based on this framework, theoretical analysis is then extended to multi-issue cases. Finally, different from the previous work, exhaustive simulations based on two-issue negotiations are performed to evaluate the effectiveness of behavior-dependent and time-dependent tactics. The experimental results provide several important insights into negotiation tactics.     

中国商务谈判行为分析

商务谈判是商务活动中的一个必不可少的组成部分。为研究中国商务谈判行为,以北京、温州和邯郸三个城市几十家企业102组商务模拟谈判为依据进行分析,数据结果揭示了中国商务谈判者的个人特征、谈判策略及谈判气氛等因素对谈判结果所产生的影响,以及这些因素之间的相互作用。     

自然人流动谈判的进程及影响因素分析

2000年WTO新一轮服务贸易谈判开启,自然人流动谈判是该轮谈判的焦点之一。自然人流动谈判历经提交提案、双边要价-出价、复边谈判、服务信号会议,尚未最终完结。WTO自然人流动谈判受到诸多因素的影响。自然人流动的更快速发展、发展中国家的更积极推动、利益相关者的更多关注对谈判起着有力的促进作用。而多哈回合一揽子承诺的谈判原则、自然人流动壁垒繁多复杂、发达国家与发展中国家间的利益冲突与观点分歧较大地阻碍了自然人流动谈判的进程。这些因素决定了自然人流动谈判成为WTO谈判的焦点,但其过程必定是曲折而缓慢的。     

语境动态顺应论在外贸谈判中的应用探析

基于Verschueren的顺应理论,通过价格谈判、付款方式谈判、佣金谈判、发货谈判案例,对外贸谈判中的语境动态顺应这一话语现象进行分析,进一步揭示语境动态顺应的应用能更有效地突破谈判僵局达成交易,从而达到双赢谈判的目标。     

The Effects of Personalised Negotiation Training on Learning and Performance in Electronic Negotiations

Individuals have different learning styles and thus require different methods for knowledge acquisition. Whereas learning theories have long acknowledged this fact, personalised negotiation trainings especially for electronic negotiations have rarely been developed. This paper integrates learning styles and negotiation styles and reports on an implementation of this integration. We will discuss personalised negotiation trainings, namely an enactive training and a vicarious training, that we developed to match the learners’ learning styles. Such a matching is proposed to be beneficial regarding learning outcomes. Furthermore, positive effects on the dyadic negotiation outcomes are assumed. To this end, an experiment with participants from different European countries was conducted. The results show tendencies that personalised negotiation trainings lead to better skill acquisition during the training and also to fairer negotiation outcomes. Overall, this paper contributes an integration of the theories on individual differences from the domains of negotiation and learning as well as valuable insights for further experiments on individual differences in negotiations.     

浅谈国际商务谈判中的跨文化问题及对策

国际商务谈判是商务活动的重要内容 ,不可避免地要遇到跨文化问题。跨文化问题阻碍着商务谈判的顺利进行。探讨东西文化、国际商务谈判的跨文化差异问题 ,分析中西方谈判决策过程中的文化差异以及谈判风格的不同 ,尤其是了解、宽容多元文化 ,掌握跨文化谈判的对策 ,对提高国际商务谈判的成功有一定的帮助     

Data-based negotiator allocation management

Negotiation abilities are difficult to assess, and negotiation outcomes are difficult to predict. This leads to possible deficiencies in resource allocation for negotiation tasks. In this article, we discuss the merits of a data-based approach for the allocation of negotiators to negotiation tasks. We provide a framework for negotiation allocation management that includes a method for assessing negotiator strength. The negotiator strength measure compares observable negotiation outcomes relative to similar outcomes in similar situations. We provide examples for using our framework and show evidence for its appeal when using industry data. We discuss implications for managers and provide key takeaways.     

How to Attain Desired Outcomes Through Channel Conflict Negotiation

Channel relationships are dynamic and complex. Though much of channel literature has dealt with power, dependency, and conflict resolution, relatively little research focuses on how channel members apply different modes of negotiation to resolve channel conflicts and, most important, how they finagle their ways through different stages of negotiation to obtain desirable outcomes. This article suggests that in deciding which strategy to adopt to effectively negotiate with others, channel members should take into account two vital outcomes during the negotiation process: substantive gain and relationship outcome. Integrating high versus low levels for each of these two types of outcomes, this study develops a framework for channel conflict negotiation in an international setting and recommends appropriate negotiation strategies for various scenarios and phases of negotiation.     

Identifying Macro Phases Across the Negotiation Lifecycle

Existing models of negotiation as a process are incomplete and do not show an overall, start to finish lifecycle. Current phase based models lack clearly defined criteria that identify phase boundaries. After reviewing existing models, the paper identifies macro phases, clarifies phase boundaries, and delivers a bird’s eye view model of negotiation supported by examples in academic literature and the public record. The enhanced model proposed here provides a practical negotiation guideline and roadmap previously left unclear in the literature. The proposed model contributes to theory around negotiation by defining the boundaries of a sequence of macro phases in negotiation and enhancing the model through business process modeling. With the enhanced model, academics and practitioners can share a viewpoint for understanding, communicating, and further developing negotiation models.     

上海自贸试验区负面清单制定与中美BIT 谈判 联动性研究

转变政府职能、推动管理模式创新和探索扩大开放新途径是上海自贸试验区建设的核心任务,而对于外商投资采取负面清单模式管理是其中最大的挑战。当前中美正在紧锣密鼓进行的双边投资保护协定谈判的最大难点同样是负面清单的谈判。作为为国家对外开放探索新途径的试验区,上海自贸试验区负面清单的制定必然要与中美BIT谈判中涉及到的负面清单谈判进行联动,本文将对两者之间联动的必要性、负面清单模式的形成过程、核心内涵以及如何实现上海自贸试验区与中美BIT的联动等问题进行分析。     

The Influence of Past Negotiations on Negotiation Counterpart Preferences

Choosing the right counterpart can have a significant impact on negotiation success. Unfortunately, little research has studied such negotiation counterpart decisions. Three studies examined the influence of past negotiations on preferences to negotiate again with a counterpart. Study 1 found that the more favorable a past negotiated agreement the stronger the preference to negotiate with the counterpart in the future. Moreover, this relation was mediated through liking of the counterpart. Study 2 manipulated the difficulty of achieving a favorable agreement in the negotiation and found a significant effect of this situational factor such that subsequent counterpart preferences were less favorable when the negotiation was difficult. Similar to Study 1, this effect was mediated through liking of the counterpart. Study 3 examined the possibility of debiasing negotiator preferences from the biasing influence of situational characteristics by providing relevant information about the negotiation situation. Replicating the results of Study 2, negotiation difficulty affected counterpart preferences before additional information was given or when irrelevant information was given. However, once negotiators received relevant information on the negotiation situation, the effect of negotiation difficulty disappeared. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.     

The Effects of Multimedia Communication on Web-Based Negotiation

With the rapid growth of electronic commerce, there is growing demand forremote online negotiations. Although the Internet now enables audio and video communication, most Web-based negotiation systems are still text-based. There is, however, a lack of research on the effects of multimedia on remote negotiations. In this paper, we present a theoretical model to investigate the impacts of multimedia communication in an online negotiation setting. The constructs in our model include communication efficiency, communication effectiveness, and positive and negative social-emotional communication. Through a simulated house purchasing negotiation experiment, we study how different multimedia combinations (text only; text with audio; text with audio and video) affect our constructs and thus further influence negotiation results. Our results showed that both text with audio and text with audio and video communication were significantly preferred to text alone. However, the addition of video to text and audio communication in a negotiation environment was not found to be beneficial. It did not significantly improve communication efficiency, effectiveness or positive social-emotional communication, but distracted negotiators from focusing on the negotiation task. Our analysis also revealed that the communication efficiency construct did not correlate with the perceived success of the negotiation solution; however communication effectiveness and social-emotional communication did correlate with negotiation satisfaction.     

Rejection of Empathy in Negotiation

Trust is a crucial quality in the development of individuals and societies and empathy plays a key role in the formation of trust. Trust and empathy have growing importance in studies of negotiation. However, empathy can be rejected which complicates its role in negotiation. This paper presents a linguistic analysis of empathy by focusing on rejection of empathy in negotiation. Some of the rejections are due to failed recognition of the rejector’s needs and desires whereas others have mainly strategic functions gaining momentum in the negotiation. In both cases, rejection of empathy is a phase in the negotiation not a breakdown.