Getting ahead or falling behind: Findings from the second wave of the National Income Dynamics Study

The National Income Dynamics Study is the first national panel study of South African individuals. Its objective is to track these individuals over time to study social mobility. This paper documents the survey design and a successful recontact record in Wave 2 before providing an overview of the key findings from the other papers in this issue of the journal. Those from the top of the income distribution were hardest to recontact. The papers show that average real incomes grew slightly between 2008 and 2010. However, life satisfaction and expectations of future upward mobility declined. Being unemployed and moving into unemployment is associated with the lowest level of life satisfaction. Aggregate employment did not decline much but there was significant labour-market churn. The National Income Dynamics Study data reveal high levels of grade repetition and a slow transition from school to work. Relocating is shown to be an important part of schooling and employment decisions.     

Microeconomic determinants of spatial mobility in post-apartheid South Africa: Longitudinal evidence from the National Income Dynamics Study

Migration, important for many areas in development, is strongly related to employment. Debate over labour supply in developing countries frequently hinges on labour migration. This paper examines the determinants of spatial mobility of working-age adults in South Africa, using the first nationally representative longitudinal survey – the National Income Dynamics Study – for 2008–10. The paper outlines the unique advantages of these data for the study of individual mobility – data that open the possibility of a new research project. Specifically, it asks how policy-relevant programmes, such as social transfers and housing assistance, affect migration. This paper finds, on balance, that transfers are negatively correlated with subsequent relocation. Previous migration is also predictive of future migration and both are tightly related to attrition, while there is an increasing but strongly non-linear relationship between income and mobility. Further, we highlight potential pitfalls – including attrition, and definitional difficulties – in the study of migration and illustrate possible solutions.     

职业初期的“拼爹”严重吗?——基于代际收入传递的视角

文章聚焦于子代职业早期，建立理论模型和连续变量处理效应模型研究父代收入对子代收入的因果性影响，研究发现：第一，理论上讲，代际收入弹性与人力资本回报率、社会资本回报率正相关，与政府对人力资本投资的累进性负相关；第二，在子代职业早期阶段，父亲收入对子代收入有正向因果性影响，且代际收入弹性整体偏低，说明代际收入流动性相对较大；第三，局部代际收入弹性和子代收入波动随着父亲收入水平的上升而下降，说明低收入父亲的子女的代际收入流动性相对较低，易发生贫困的代际传递；第四，代际收入传递存在一定的城乡和性别差异。以上结论说明在我国职业早期代际收入流动性较高，因此，政府在实施相关提升代际收入流动性的政策时，可侧重于劳动者职业生涯的中、后期，同时，应继续提高公共教育政策的累进性。     

Determinants of Household Income Mobility in Rural China

This article uses multivariate regression and decomposition analyses to assess household income mobility determinants and their contributions to income mobility in rural China from 1989 to 2006. The findings indicate that households with lower initial income level, higher share of wage income, higher educational level of household members, larger number of non-agricultural employed household members and younger heads are more mobile. Moreover, besides initial income, change in the share of wage income, change in the share of non-agricultural employed household members, and change in average year of education of household members are the most important factors that account for income mobility. These findings necessitate more emphasis on policies that promote non-agricultural employment and education to enhance household income mobility in rural China.     

中国农村内部的收入流动性：位移效应和增长效应

本文基于中国健康和营养调查（CHNS）的农户收入数据对中国农村家庭从1989年到2006年间的收入流动性进行了测算和分解。测算结果表明,收入流动对收入分配的短期不均等有缓解作用,但这种作用在短期中因流动性的下降而正在弱化。分解结果则说明,相对收入位序的改变虽然仍是农村内部收入流动的主导因素,但收入增长的作用正在增加。这是因为农村内部的收入分层化现象的长期化趋势正导致位移效应的作用下降,且在低收入家庭中已开始出现“阶层锁定”现象。     

Evidence of short-term household change in South Africa from the National Income Dynamics Study

We use longitudinal data from the National Income Dynamics Study to document the extent of recent short-term residential and household compositional change in South Africa. We analyse the demographic correlates of these transitions, including population group, age, urban/rural status, and income. We examine educational and labour-market transitions among movers and the prevalence of the four major types of compositional change – births, addition of joiners, deaths, and loss of leavers. We find that short-term household change is prevalent in South Africa. During a two-year period from 2008 to 2010, 10.5% of South Africans moved residence and 61.3% experienced change in household composition. We find that moving is more common among blacks and whites, very young children, young adults, urban individuals, and those with higher incomes. Among non-movers, compositional change is more likely for blacks and coloureds, young adults and children, females, urban individuals, and individuals with lower incomes.     

我国城镇化进程中农村收入阶层经济地位演化分析

文章运用CHNS数据库,从收入流动性视角,通过反事实计量和数值模拟方法,从众多影响因素中分解出城镇化因子对收入流动性的净效应,进而研究城镇化对我国农村收入阶层经济地位变化的影响。研究发现,农村虽存在较高收入流动性,但底层居民向上流动的机会并不大,且阶层联动结果证实了农村收入分布存在极化效应。在这一过程中,城镇化效应引起的农村收入流动性并不高,主要是引起相邻收入阶层之间经济地位转换;同时,从城镇化导致的阶层联动看,既有促进较高收入阶层和较低收入阶层向两极分化的作用,又有抑制中等收入阶层规模变小的作用。总体表明,城镇化对农村中等收入以上阶层经济地位提高更有利。     

The Poverty of Politics: How Income Redistribution Hurts the Poor

In spite of the significant research literature identifying a tradeoff between income redistribution and economic growth, massive public programs have been implemented to help the poor by transferring income to them. Since Lyndon Johnson's war on poverty began in 1964, over 3.5 trillion dollars have been transferred. However, the possibility that everyone, including the poor, may in fact be made worse off by the transfer has largely been ignored. With a simple algebraic model, the authors demonstrate that, over time, both high and low-income groups are harmed by redistribution. In addition, social mobility, as well as political concerns with relative poverty and international income redistribution increases the damage to all income groups produced by redistribution.     

Income inequality,volatility, and mobility risk in China and the US

A unified index of income inequality, volatility, and mobility risk is presented, and measurements based on US and Chinese panel data calculated. China is found to have higher-income volatility than the US in recent data, so that long-run inequality is comparable in the two countries, and short-run inequality overstates long-run inequality more in China than in the US. In both countries volatility and income inequality are increasing over time.     

我国居民收入代际流动研究的科学计量学解读

收入代际流动程度较弱是我国转型期收入差距不断扩大的主要根源之一,为了系统梳理国内收入代际流动领域研究的发展脉络,了解研究热点和发展动向,从科学计量学的角度应用可视化技术分析近年来国内对收入代际流动的研究状况。通过检索CSSCI（1998—2011）获得有关收入代际流动研究的49篇文献与670篇引文,运用文献计量学与统计分析方法对这些文献数据从时间分布、期刊分布、作者与机构分布、基金项目与研究热点等多个维度进行计量分析：运用文献共被引分析方法与动态网络分析的信息可视化技术绘制我国收入代际流动领域的科学知识图谱,从而展示收入代际流动研究的关键节点、以及节点所代表的专家及其著作对该领域发展所起的重要作用,展现我国居民收入代际流动的知识基础与研究前沿,进而为我国收入代际流动研究提供思路与借鉴,推动相关研究领域理论与经验研究。     

Wages,Productivity and Labour's Declining Income Share in Post‐Apartheid South Africa

The Marikana incident in 2012, as well as the protracted strikes by platinum miners, metal and postal workers in 2014 suggest that not all is well in the South African labour market. Even though those in employment are better off than the unemployed poor, macroeconomic data indicate that labour's share in gross value added has declined significantly during the first two decades following the first democratic election in 1994. A falling share of labour in income also means, by definition, that average labour productivity growth outstrips real wages growth. Data for South Africa suggest that productivity has indeed increased faster than wages in South Africa. This article argues that financialisation and more aggressive returns‐oriented investment strategies applied by for instance large investment institutions translated into higher required rates of return on capital, which in turn caused an increased implementation of capital‐augmenting labour‐saving technology that reduces labour's share in income.     

农村居民多维收入流动、税费负担及政策效应——基于面板数据PSM-DID方法的研究

收入流动性是从动态视角衡量居民收入分配公平与否的重要指标,其变动程度受到税收等因素的影响。文章基于2001年至2014年季度和年度面板数据,依据多维收入流动指标,测算出了地区之间农村居民绝对和相对收入流动程度,并利用双重差分倾向得分匹配法（PSM-DID）和工具变量估计法研究了农村税费改革及其他经济社会因素对农村居民收入流动性的影响。研究发现：（1）农村税费改革的政策效应非常显著,实施农业税费减免政策的地区,其农民的绝对收入流动性显著高于未改革地区;（2）税费负担对绝对收入流动性的影响呈现出"倒U型"特征,即当税费负担率为0.167%时,绝对收入流动性达到最大值,若进一步增加税费负担,收入流动性则呈现下降趋势;（3）税费支出变动对相对收入流动性的影响也通过了5%的显著性检验;（4）农村劳动力文化结构、工资收入比重等家庭特征因素对收入流动性的影响具有较大的地区异质性。有鉴于此,在进一步完善税费征收项目监管的同时,依据家庭及地区特征实施差异化的支农惠农政策,切实减轻农民负担,增强农村居民收入流动,实现地区间收入分配均衡。     

交通基础设施、要素流动与城乡收入差距

大规模的基础设施建设，尤其是以铁路提速为代表的交通基础设施质量升级，是否会影响收入分配?通过将始于1997年的铁路提速事件视为交通基础设施质量提升的准自然实验，文章基于要素流动视角，运用双重差分方法实证检验了铁路提速对城乡收入分配的影响。机制分析表明，铁路提速通过促进劳动力、资本和技术等要素在城乡之间的流动，从而缩小城乡收入差距。实证分析表明，铁路提速显著缩小了城乡收入差距，缩小了大约5%-7%。铁路提速缩小城乡收入差距的作用主要来自于促进了人的流动、物的流动和技术流动，从而证实了要素流动机制。从城乡收入分配的角度而言，铁路提速显著有利于农村居民收入增加，从而缩小了城乡收入差距。动态效应表明，铁路提速初期缩小了城乡收入差距，但缩小作用递减；在2003年之后，铁路提速扩大了城乡收入差距。在这一过程中，2003年之前城乡收入差距缩小主要在于农村居民收入增长快于城市居民，从而城乡收入差距缩小；2003年之后，城市居民收入增幅大于农村居民，城乡收入差距开始扩大。这一动态效应的背后主要是由要素流动机制所致。基于多种稳健性检验，文章结论依然十分稳健。文章结论为提升交通基础设施质量、打破地区分割促进要素流动、提升农村地区要素集聚能力等政策提供了直接证据。     

Genes and Social Mobility: A Case for Progressive Income Tax

Abstract

The effect of ability inheritance on income distribution and social mobility is analyzed with an emphsis on the role of progressive income tax. Epstein–Zin style utility function is used to highlight the role of risk aversion. The result shows that higher genetic inheritability leads to lower per capita income, higher income variance and lower aggregate welfare at the steady state. This tendency is intensified when the elasticity of a child's income to parent's educational investment is higher. In this setup, it is shown that progressive income tax can be a welfare-enhancing tool by increasing social mobility. The optimal progressive income tax rate is obtained in the benchmark model and its positive effect is discussed in the context of “Veil of ignorance”, a concept proposed by Rawls (A Theory of Justice (Cambridge, MA: Harvard, University Press), 1971).     

我国居民收入分配的格局——帕雷托分布方法

本文为确定一个时期内总体收入分配或特定部分的收入分配究竟是否趋向两极分化和比较中间收入等级和高收入等级的分配份额提供了方法。用帕雷托分布拟合我国1988年和1995年两年的居民收入分配。发现1995年和1988年相比：（1）没有明显证据表明农村居民收入存在两极分化．城镇居民在排除了收入最低的10％人口后，有明显的两极分化趋向；（2）中间等级收入份额减少。收入向高收入者集中；（3）高收入者内部收入分配差别扩大；（4）社会成员在不同的收入等级之间的流动更加容易。     

中国代际收入流动性估计:基于随机系数模型

文章利用 1989-2011 年的中国健康与营养调查（CHNS）数据对中国的代际收入流动进行了分析。在充分控制生命周期偏误的前提下,文章通过构建随机系数模型进一步修正了模型设定偏误对估计结果的影响。实证结果表明,全国总体的代际收入弹性为 0.6 左右,农村内部为 0.7 左右,城市内部为 0.5 左右。我们发现,生命周期偏误倾向于导致低估代际收入弹性,但模型设定偏误对估计结果的影响方向并不确定。由于解决生命周期偏误的措施无法解决模型设定偏误,以住的研究有可能低估农村的代际流动,高估城市的代际流动。     

Desegregation in Pietersburg after the repeal of the Group Areas Act

Since the Group Areas Act was repealed in 1991, black people have for the first time become legal home‐owners in previously whites‐only areas of South African cities. This survey is concerned with residential changes in Pietersburg between June 1991 and May 1993. The residential location of black people was monitored and mapped, and the first new black home‐owners were interviewed to determine their reasons for moving to Pietersburg. The survey shows that only blacks in the middle‐ and high‐income groups made the move, and that property values were not a deciding factor in the purchase of a home.     

父代关系与代际收入流动：基于教育和就业的视角

文章运用计量方法分析了父代关系与中国代际收入流动性的关系。我们用2010年中国家庭追踪调查中父代为了子女上学和就业“找关系”来衡量寻租行为,通过工具变量法和分位回归法探讨了父代关系对不同人群的影响。结果显示,为子女就学（就业）找关系对于代际收入流动有一定的促进作用;进一步,分位回归和不同社会区域特征的影响揭示,教育和就业领域的“寻租市场”远远不是完全有效市场,在这一市场中所进行的寻租行为进一步加剧了教育和就业资源在城乡之间、不同收入阶层之间原本就存在的分布不均。教育资源均等化和劳动力市场的进一步市场化对于减少为了子代福利而进行的寻租腐败行为、以及建设机会均等的和谐社会具有重要意义。     

防止收入差距扩大的若干措施

我国个人收入差距偏大 ,城乡之间、地区之间、行业之间收入差距明显。为了防止收入差距扩大 ,应采取如下措施 :高度重视“三农”问题 ;积极推进西部大开发 ;打破行业垄断 ;采取积极的就业政策、教育政策和劳动力流动政策 ;完善工资分配制度 ;坚决取缔非法收入 ;加强税收调节 ;