实施碳排放权交易会计核算的若干思考

传统经济增长理论框架中没有纳入生态系统,而生态系统是人类生存和经济可持续发展的必要条件。随着环境因素与人类之间相互影响程度不断扩大,单独将环境因素进行反映、管理和控制被提上日程。20世纪90年代,联合国开始在国民账户系统(SNA)中的资产类账户核算环境资产。不久联合国又颁布了SNA的子账户——环境经济核算系统(SEEA),明确将生态系统作为环境资产核算的范围,这个系统核算生态及其退化,将生态系统提供的服务分为供应服务、调节服务和文化服务。     

关于国土综合整治服务生态系统的思考

正人类活动对国土的影响范围和强度日趋增大,已成为生态系统的主导者,强烈影响着生态系统。在生态文明建设提升为中华民族永续发展千年大计的背景下,国土综合整治如何发力,以提供更多优质生态产品和优美生态环境,值得深思。生态系统服务的科学问题生态系统服务是指人类从生态系统中直接或间接所获得的各种惠益,分为供给服务、调节气候、文化服务和支持服务四类,是人类赖以生存和发     

生物多样性与森林生态系统服务功能关系探讨

伴随着工农业的快速发展,环境问题日益凸显,森林生态系统服务功能衰退。生物多样性和生产力、生产力和森林生态系统服务功能之间均有一定的正相关性,基于因果路径分析理论,生物多样性通过作用于生产力这一中介变量来提高森林生态系统服务功能。而目前我国生物多样性面临着来自人类和自然的双重威胁,建议从推进生物多样性主流化、完善法律监管力度、促进保护手段创新方面减轻这一威胁。     

世界森林生态系统的商品和服务评价

森林生态系统为人类提供了众多的商品和服务。商品性的木材生产是重要的全球性产业,木材燃料是当前主要的非化石能源,在可预见的未来,它将仍具有极大的重要性。森林的生物多样性在它拥有的效能是一种商品。森林在地球碳循环中起着中心作用,形成了最大的陆地碳库。在水源保护方面,森林提供了多种有价值的服务,森林的损失已使得世界的水源受到极大的影响。     

世界森林生态系统概评

世界森林生态系统包括热带、亚热带、温带森林,北方针叶林以及其他有林地。由于人类社会经济活动,森林生态系统遭受了规模巨大的损失,表现出非完整性特征,并使森林火灾发生的频数增加,强度加大。目前全球有60%多的森林面积受到人类经济活动的干扰和影响,工业化国家绝大部分的森林是处于“半自然”状态下,或转变为人工林,发展中国家森林覆盖率下降,从而改变了森林生态系统提供的商品和服务。     

基于CiteSpace的生态系统服务与人类福祉的关系研究

目的 为了追踪和探索生态系统服务与人类福祉之间的趋势与热点,了解其研究进展,为未来的相关研究提供新思路。方法 文章基于CiteSpace软件及文献计量学分析方法,以CSSCI与CSCD数据库为来源,从生态系统服务、人类福祉、生态系统服务—人类福祉三方面,系统地分析了国内生态系统服务与人类福祉之间的研究现状与热点趋势,总结了二者之间复杂关系的研究进展,并指出未来的研究方向。结果 （1）生态系统服务领域的文献量较多,研究热点及方向较广泛,主要集中在功能与价值评估、土地利用、生态补偿等方面,但缺少对大尺度区域复合生态系统服务的评估研究且评估方法的科学性有待加强。（2）人类福祉领域的文献量较少,研究范围较局限,研究热点主要集中在与生态系统服务的关系与福祉评估,在此基础上还应多角度探究人类福祉的影响因素及福祉评估方法的准确性。（3）生态系统服务—人类福祉领域的研究成果较少,研究内容不够深入,研究方法的科学性有待提高。结论 该研究深入探索了当前生态服务与人类福祉的研究热点及进展,对未来学者完善该领域的研究提供参考意义。     

湿地生态系统的功能及其价值评估——以洞庭湖区为例

湿地生态系统与生态形成过程所维系的人类赖以生存的自然环境条件和特殊资源构成了湿地生态系统的特殊价值和功能。本文以洞庭湖区为例,分析了湿地生态系统的功能及其价值评估,认为洞庭湖湿地生态系统的环境服务功能价值是十分重要的,但随着现代农业发展忽视了生态系统保护,最后提出了相应对策。     

对森林生态系统服务价值问题的思考

人类的生存环境日益受到多种多样的威胁,保护生态环境是当今全球社会的使命,是一种责任和义务,多数国家都有环境保护的相应法规,从立法的角度确认了可持续发展的必要性和强制性,它体现出文明社会的责任感。人类社会的可持续发展从根本上取决于生态系统及其服务的可持续性。森林是地球上生态环境建设的主体,因此,必须在对森林生态系统的结构功能进行研究的基础上,研究森林生态系统服务价值,为决策者提供充分的信息,才能避免森林生态系统服务的短视经济行为,才有利于森林生态系统的保护并最终有利于人类自身的可持续发展。通常经济学家和生态…     

对森林生态系统服务价值问题的思考

人类的生存环境日益受到多种多样的威胁,保护生态环境是当今全球社会的使命,是一种责任和义务,多数国家都有环境保护的相应法规,从立法的角度确认了可持续发展的必要性和强制性,它体现出文明社会的责任感.人类社会的可持续发展从根本上取决于生态系统及其服务的可持续性.森林是地球上生态环境建设的主体,因此,必须在对森林生态系统的结构功能进行研究的基础上,研究森林生态系统服务价值,为决策者提供充分的信息,才能避免森林生态系统服务的短视经济行为,才有利于森林生态系统的保护并最终有利于人类自身的可持续发展.     

调整产业结构与建立高效农业生态系统

当前,黑龙江垦区各场正在深入调整产业结构。本文试从分析八五八农场农业资源状况、产业结构功能状态和发展趋势出发,说明调整产业结构与建立高效农业生态系统之间的关系。 一、八五八农场农业资源状况 农业生态系统是指在一定的气候、土壤、水分等环境条件下,以人类为中心,以作物、家畜为基础,包括邻近的环境资源共同构成的特有的旨在为人类生存服务的能量转移、物质循环系统。其组成大体上可分为自然资源和社会资源两大类。     

Economic evaluation of ecosystem goods and services under different landscape management scenarios

Human-induced changes in the natural environment are affecting the provision of ecosystem goods and services (EGS). Land use plans rarely include the value of public ecosystem services such as climate regulation and biodiversity due to difficulties in valuing these services. In this study, we assessed total economic value for five important ecosystem goods and services under five future land-use scenarios using varying levels of costs, prices and discount rates. Results indicated that at higher discount rates normally applied to commercial activities, and assuming the current prices for goods and services, net present value (NPV) was highest for landscape management scenarios aimed at maximising agricultural production. Potential income from services such as carbon and biodiversity does not offset projected income lost from agriculture due to land-use changes. At higher discount rates, NPV was negative for the two scenarios aimed at enhancing the longer term ecological sustainability of the landscape. These results indicate that income from carbon sequestration and biodiversity conservation would need to be considerably higher than current levels in order to justify focusing management of this landscape on ecological outcomes. At lower discount rates (at levels normally associated with public investments), the more ecologically appropriate ‘mosaic farming system’ had the highest NPV, indicating that this type of system might be attractive for investors interested in longer term return horizons or wider public benefits. Higher income from carbon or biodiversity, or increased return from timber by using high value tree species, could potentially make more ecologically appropriate systems profitable at higher discount rates.     

Measuring environmental incomes beyond standard national and ecosystem accounting frameworks: testing and comparing the agroforestry Accounting System in a holm oak dehesa case study in Andalusia-Spain

The standard System of National Accounts (SNA) omits the costs of the environmental inputs from nature and the environmental fixed asset degradation from the national/sub-national natural working landscapes. The United Nations Statistic Division (UNSD) is currently drafting the standardization of the Experimental Ecosystem Accounting (EEA), as part of the System of Environmental-Economic Accounting (SEEA). The EEA- aims to mitigate some of the limitations of the SNA by extending the concept of economic activity and explicitly incorporating ecosystem services and environmental assets provided by nature in the estimates of net value added, adjusted according to the costs of the environmental inputs consumed and the environmental fixed asset degradations of ecosystem. However, the NVAad proposed in the ongoing draft of the EEA is inconsistent in that it omits the manufactured costs of the public economic activities of the new government institutional sub-sector of the ecosystem trustee. In addition, the ongoing methodological guidelines of the EEA do not propose to estimate the environmental income. This implies that there is not a single indicator that integrates the ecosystem services obtained and the evolution of the environmental assets in the natural working landscapes in which the private and public activities are valued. The objective of this research is to discuss conceptually and compare the measurements of ecosystem services and environmental incomes in the extended Agroforestry Accounting System (AAS), and in refined versions of the official SNA and the ongoing EEA methodologies, through a case study of privately-owned holm oak dehesas working landscapes in Andalusia-Spain. This comparison shows that the refined SNA and the refined EEA in their current state of development do not allow the complete visualization of the environmental income contribution to the total income of the natural working landscapes. We also discuss the advances provided by the AAS extended accounting methodology that would be relevant for the EEA next improvements.     

Land Heterogeneity,Agricultural Income Forgone and Environmental Benefit: An Assessment of Incentive Compatibility Problems in Environmental Stewardship Schemes

This paper examines the issue of incentive compatibility within environmental stewardship schemes, where incentive payments to farmers to provide environmental goods and services are based on foregone agricultural income. The particular focus of the paper is land heterogeneity, either of agricultural or environmental value, leading to divergence between the actual and socially optimal level of provision of environmental goods and services. Given land heterogeneity, such goods and services are likely to be systematically over‐ or under‐provided in response to a flat rate payment for income foregone.     

Adverse Selection in the Environmental Stewardship Scheme: Does the Higher Level Stewardship Scheme Design Reduce Adverse Selection?

The Environmental Stewardship Scheme provides payments to farmers for the provision of environmental services based on foregone agricultural income. This creates a potential incentive compatibility problem which, combined with information asymmetry about farm land potential, can lead to adverse selection of land into the Scheme and therefore a less cost‐effective provision of environmental goods and services. However, the Higher Level Stewardship (HLS) Scheme design includes some features that potentially reduce adverse selection. This paper studies the adverse selection problem of the HLS using a principal‐agent framework at the regional level. It is found that, at the regional level, the enrolment of more land from lower payment regions for a given budget constraint has reduced the adverse selection problem through contracting a greater overall area and thus higher overall environmental benefit. In addition, for landscape regions with the same payment rate (i.e. of the same agricultural value), differential weighting of the public demand for environmental goods and services provided by agriculture (measured by weighting an environmental benefit function by the distance to main cities) appears to be reflected in the regulator’s allocation of contracts, thereby also reducing the adverse selection problem.     

Contrasting the attitudes of farmers and the general public regarding the ‘multifunctional’ role of the agricultural sector

Using separate nationally representative surveys, this study compared the views and perspectives of farmers towards agricultural related conservation issues with that of the general public. Results suggest that both the general public and farmers expressed similar levels of concern regarding the environment as a whole. This is an encouraging sign when it comes to environmental protection, as it indicates a certain level of agreement between farmers as the group whose activities largely shape the quality of the rural environment, with the views of the general public who are the major consumers of landscape related environmental public goods. The analysis did, however, reveal important differences in attitudes in relation to certain environmental issues such as the relative importance of maintaining wildlife and habitats and having wild flora and fauna in the countryside. These activities could be seen as in conflict with farmers’ productivist attitudes. We found no significant difference in environmental attitudes between farmers who have participated in voluntary agri-environmental schemes and those who did not. Results also suggest that there is significant heterogeneity in public attitudes towards environmental issues. Specifically, age, income, place of residence and presence of children were all significantly associated with environmental preferences. The study concludes that consideration needs to be given to the different views and perspectives of farmers and the general public in formulating policy aimed at providing an optimal mix of agricultural related environmental public goods and services.     

Total income and ecosystem service sustainability index: Accounting applications to holm oak dehesa case study in Andalusia-Spain

This research develops the novel concept of an economic ecosystem service sustainability index from the perspective of total income theory, and presents its empirical application at the spatial unit scale of the agroforestry farm. This paper compares the results accrued from applying the refined standard System of National Accounts (rSNA) and the authors’ Agroforestry Accounting System (AAS). The AAS extends the rSNA to capture economic activities without manufactured production costs and substitutes the production cost valuations for exchange values revealed/stated by consumer willingness to pay for consumption of final products without market prices, the aim being to provide more comprehensive figures for total and environmental incomes of the agroforestry farms. Both accounting frameworks are applied to a case study of sixteen large, non-industrial, privately-owned holm oak dehesas (agroforestry farms) in Andalusia-Spain. This dehesa application provides estimates for the economic ecosystem service, total income factorial allocation, total capital and economic ecosystem service sustainability index for the aggregate and individual economic activities of the dehesa, distributed between accounts for the farmer and government institutional sector economic activities. The AAS explicit measurements of the hidden rSNA ecosystem services and environmental incomes of the dehesa allow us to further our scientific understanding of the current and future contributions of environmental income from nature to the total income of society as well as to provide information to the policy makers so that action can be taken to mitigate the depletion and degradation of environmental assets. This dehesa application reveals that environmental income measured by the AAS accounts for 67 % of total income in 2010. The dehesa AAS and rSNA ecosystem services share 34 % and 26 % of total product consumptions, respectively. Coupled with the AAS economic ecosystem service sustainability index of 0.5 and the rSNA economic ecosystem service sustainability index of 0.2, these figures indicate total product over-consumption in 2010. The dehesa case study shows that the AAS ecosystem services and environmental incomes are 2.5 and 8.4 times higher than those of the rSNA, respectively. Once the theoretic robustness of non-market product consumption simulated transaction value is accepted, as in the AAS methodology, the expected official economic ecosystem accounting framework will mainly depend on its ongoing standardization by the United Nations Statistical Division and implementation by individual governments. Thus, the challenge of standardizing and implementing such a framework is more closely linked to governmental policy measures than to the current scientific weakness of non-market product consumption valuations.     

The Governance of Rural Land in a Liberalised World

Liberalisation of agricultural policies reduces the influence of policy on land‐use decisions, but environmental policy objectives remain. Governance provides an approach that recognises the role of institutions and collective action. The formulation of environmental policy objectives in terms of the provision of public goods raises questions as to the role of economic valuation and as to whether the definition of ‘goods’ may misdirect policy attention. An alternative approach relates to ecosystem services and sees management issues in terms of ecosystem resilience and the adaptive governance of socio‐ecological systems. Governance involves a mix of regulation, markets, government incentives and collective action. Regulation sets the domain within which markets operate and social judgements as to property rights are required as a basis for exchanges. Depending on commodity prices, agri‐environment schemes may be required either to reduce agricultural production intensity or to keep land under production. The diffuse nature of the environmental benefits and costs of land uses, the complexity of ecosystems and the need to co‐ordinate land management decisions indicate a role for local adaptive co‐management of land resources. Governments play a major role in supporting the institutional framework within which this can take place.     

Forester networks: The intersection of private lands policy and collaborative capacity

Privately owned forestland provides abundant ecosystem goods and services to society at scales beyond the individual forest parcel. However, successful mechanisms to encourage broad-scale management in privately owned, multifunctional, landscapes are relatively limited. In the United States, state agency and private foresters may be poised to help facilitate landscape-scale management given their role as gatekeepers to private landowner incentive programs or emerging markets for ecosystem goods and services. A key question remains as to the collaborative capacity of public and private sector foresters, especially in the face of evolving private forestry incentive programs, some of which have shifted toward public–private partnerships (PPP's). We used qualitative interviews and a social network survey with professional foresters in Northern Wisconsin, an area with a high demand for diverse forest ecosystem services, to identify the structure of current business networks among land managers in the region and characteristics of these relationships that may influence collaboration. Of the nearly 300 different individual professionals identified, most (86%) were state, consulting, or industry foresters, suggesting a relatively homogeneous network of professionals and potential need for other types of natural resource professionals to tie into existing foresters’ networks. We found that central network positions were occupied by all three types of foresters, while the qualitative analysis suggested the private forestry incentive program is likely driving, in part, network configuration. Interviews yielded a nuanced understanding of foresters’ relationships, including the impact of forest policy changes on public–private partnerships and specifically the growing role of private foresters in providing private lands forestry services and the need for successful mechanisms to reduce conflict and improve collaborative capacity among professionals.     

European agri-environmental policy for the 21st century

The present paper reviews the development of agri-environmental policy in Europe and assesses its prospects. While it does so from a predominantly UK perspective, there are many common features of the experience and policy choices across the majority of Member States. The first generation of agri-environmental measures applied command-and-control regulation for the prevention of pollution. Second-generation measures pay farmers for providing environmental public goods. The emphasis on 'amenity' derived from the maintenance of agricultural production systems contrasts with policy approaches in Australia and the USA. Well-designed incentive schemes constitute 'quasi-markets' for public goods, correcting for a pre-existing market failure. Problems in the delivery of policy include poor spatial targeting and a lack of clarity between environmental and income support objectives. Various changes will be required in order to increase the environmental effectiveness and efficiency of agri-environmental mechanisms.     

对生态系统服务价值问题的思考

介绍了生态系统服务的内涵、评估生态系统服务价值的意义,论述了生态系统总经济价值的构成及其评估方法,得到生态系统总经济价值体现的各种不同状态,需要多种研究方法结合共同探讨其合适的保护政策的结论。