The effects of tourism development on rural livelihoods in the Okavango Delta,Botswana

The Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) program in Botswana aims to achieve biodiversity conservation and rural development in rich biodiversity areas like the Okavango Delta. CBNRM assumes that if rural communities derive benefits from natural resources, they will be obliged to use such resources sustainably. Using the sustainable livelihoods framework, this study analyzes the effects of tourism development through CBNRM on rural livelihoods at Khwai, Sankoyo and Mababe in the Okavango Delta, Botswana, using primary and secondary data sources. Results of long-term surveys and in-depth interviews indicate that the three communities have forgone traditional livelihood activities such as hunting and gathering, livestock and crop farming to participate in tourism through CBNRM. Livelihoods in these villages have been improved as a result. Basic needs such as shelter, employment and income and social services like water supply systems, transportation, scholarships and payment of funeral expenses are now provided to community members and funded with income from CBNRM. Social capital has been built up in order to agree, manage and develop the CBNRM process. These results show that tourism development in these villages is achieving its goal of improved livelihoods, contradicting claims that community development projects are failing to achieve rural development.     

Community-based tourism enterprises: challenges and prospects for community participation; Khama Rhino Sanctuary Trust,Botswana

This study assesses community participation in a community-based tourism enterprise in Botswana, the Khama Rhino Sanctuary Trust, founded in 1992. Data were collected using structured and semi-structured questionnaires, interviews with key stakeholders and community focus group discussions. Results indicate that although Community-Based Natural Resource Management is popular in many southern African nations, communities still face challenges and constraints which hinder their participation in community-based enterprises. While some other studies in Botswana indicate the value of community-based tourism, 95% of adult residents in the Khama Rhino Sanctuary Trust area did not know who owned the Trust, and 98% had never been to the Trust's lands. There was community disappointment about loss of cattle grazing and other land-related benefits, lack of communication with the community, lack of benefits, the low numbers employed and the slow progress of the project which did not record a profit until 2008. But the Trust now has over 25% of the rhinos in Botswana and has seen visitor numbers rise from 1820 in 1996 to over 21,000 in 2008. Suggestions for the future include appointment of a community liaison officer, training for local people in tourism and management and use of single-community rather than multi-community trusts.     

Tourism in Maasai communities: a chance to improve livelihoods?

This paper examines community-based tourism among Maasai communities in Tanzania in the context of national policies that have increasingly devolved control over natural resources to local communities. It focuses on economic revenues generated from tourism growth, their distribution to village communities and the constraints and conflicts resulting from attempts to control or access resources. Specific cases illustrate the political and economic complexity of devolved resource management and increased income generation at the community level. Ecotourism and community-based tourism are frequently claimed to be possible remedies for wildlife and natural resources conservation, but research indicates that implementation and revenue-sharing are far from straightforward. The paper uses case studies from communities in northern Tanzania, in Ngorongoro District (Loliondo and Lake Natron), Simanjiro District and Longido District (West Kilimanjaro) to explore issues between pastoralism, cultivation, hunting tourism, photographic tourism, conservation and governance systems. It discusses the implementation of the 1998 National Forestry and Wildlife Policies, the creation of Wildlife Management Areas and the 1999 Land Act and Village Land Act. Data and experiences were gathered over a three-year period working with the Sand County Foundation – Tanzania from 2006 to 2008. The paper contributes to the assessment and discussion of pro-poor tourism and poverty alleviation concepts.     

Book Review

World Heritage Sites (WHSs) are motivated by such diverse reasons as heritage celebration, alarm calls, tourism branding and marketing and place making. Irrespective of the primary motivation for their creation, WHSs are often used to develop tourism based on cultural and natural resources of international significance. Heritage conservation may or may not be in agreement with what local populations perceive as desirable development paths. We conducted a survey among the island community of Vega in Norway that received WHS status in 2004 motivated by conservation alarm, tourism marketing and place making. We examined the local population's views of the key aspects of future development and how this related to WHS status. The islanders placed high value on social and community conditions as well as heritage linked to cultural and natural resources. While a majority supported tourism based on sustainable use of heritage they also felt that WH listing should not limit development opportunities. There were differences between younger people and adults. WHS may be an effective agent of sustainable tourism development if the main goals and strategies of the WHS are clearly understood and prioritized in the local community, leave room and perhaps link to other development opportunities.     

Protected areas,wildlife-based community tourism and community livelihoods dynamics: spiraling up and down of community capitals

Participation in wildlife-based community tourism within and around protected areas is seen as a tool to link biodiversity conservation and community livelihoods improvement. However, there is a deficiency of frameworks currently used to understand complex and dynamic relationships that exist among conservation, tourism and development. The community capitals framework is adopted to assess these linkages from a systems-thinking perspective in which community capitals’ stock and flow, explained by a community's participation in tourism determines the direction of change. Results of the Chobe Enclave Conservation Trust in Botswana indicate that all community capitals are interdependent and play a dynamic role in shaping the spiraling of community livelihoods. Participation in tourism led to both the spiraling up and down of community capitals. The spiraling up of community capitals is explained by increased livelihoods and diversification options facilitated by increased tourism income. The spiraling down is explained by the heightened human–wildlife conflicts and fragile wildlife–livestock co-existence, which led to livestock diseases, loss of beef market and the ecosystems’ fragmentation through the introduction of veterinary fences. Thus, the spiraling of community capitals is explained by the transformation of one stock of community capital to another in a systems-thinking dynamics fashion.     

Community-based tourism and networking: Viscri,Romania

This paper raises questions concerning the complexity of the term “community” when dealing with community-based tourism initiatives. It highlights the difficulty of translating into practice the paradigm of “community-based tourism”. Through a case study of tourism in the multi-ethnic village of Viscri, Romania, the paper discusses the operational role that a network of both internal and external actors may play in piloting tourism initiatives that produce benefits for communities that are unaccustomed to participatory development processes due to various barriers. The study highlights the key role played by a local leader and an external foundation in building a network that, thanks to the bonding and bridging relations activated, led the community towards a form of sustainable tourism development and a broader amelioration of the social conditions. The network described can be replicated in other geographical contexts, provided there is strong local leadership and also international interests and donors. In the long term, however, the network needs to be strengthened by involving other actors, above all local authorities. They are needed to assure the basis for long-term empowerment, participation in decision-making and progressive diversification of economic activities.     

A capital assets framework for appraising and building capacity for tourism development in aboriginal protected area gateway communities

Tourism may constitute an important livelihood option and conservation incentive for communities located near protected areas (PAs). Gateway communities can benefit significantly from the development of tourism through increased employment, financial gains, infrastructure creation, cultural revitalization, and environmental protection. Yet, tourism is not a panacea for PA communities and the development of a local tourism industry often fails to deliver significant economic, social, cultural, and environmental benefits. Clearly defined frameworks for maximizing the benefits from tourism development for PA communities are needed so that tourism can more directly support community development and conservation efforts. This paper presents a framework for appraising and building community capacity for tourism development in aboriginal protected area gateway communities. The framework was developed through the analysis of qualitative results from five different research projects around seven capital assets (i.e., natural, physical and built, financial, political and institutional, social, cultural, and human capitals). Preliminary results from application and testing of the framework are also explored. The framework presented herein has significant potential for broader application in non-aboriginal, international, and non-protected area communities.     

Managing heritage tourism in Toraja: strengthening local values and improving tourists’ experiences

Toraja, South Sulawesi, Indonesia, is a tourist destination known best for its ethnicity and was one of the main tourist destinations in Indonesia during the 1990s. Since 2011, the government has again designated Toraja a priority strategic tourism area in its national tourism development plan. This case study describes opportunities for, and issues associated with, heritage tourism in Toraja and explores community perspectives on tourism. The fieldwork data and secondary data were used in preparing the detailed plan for the National Tourism Strategic Area of Toraja (KSPN Toraja). The opportunities for heritage tourism in Toraja include, among others, an emerging Asian market, better transport access to the region, and central government resources and programs to complement those of the local government. The core issues of local community concern include the need to conserve Torajan heritage and to strengthen local values; develop and nurture culture alongside tourism; balance heritage conservation with tourism; and the need for better interpretation to convey local wisdom to enhance the visitor experience.     

Community agency and sustainable tourism development: the case of La Fortuna,Costa Rica

Previous sustainable tourism research has called for the promotion of community-based tourism as a means of achieving sustainable development goals. Such community-based development has been noted as essential for sustainable practices because of its capacity to benefit local populations while reducing tourism's negative consequences. Nonetheless, some researchers have warned that community-based tourism, by itself, does not necessarily lead to sustainable practices. This study examines local social interactional elements necessary for the achievement of sustainable tourism practices. Such practices are attainable when certain attitudinal, organizational and/or behavioral conditions are present within a community. Using a case study methodology, this article examines the interactional elements by which residents of La Fortuna, Costa Rica, engaged in sustainable tourism practices. The study was based on the theoretical notion of the community field. It used key informant interviews and participant observation. The study shows how economic, social and environmentally sustainable practices were made possible through community agency, the construction of local relationships that increase the adaptive capacity of people within a common locality. Key factors found to enable community agency are strong intra- and extra-community interactions, open communication, participation, distributive justice and tolerance.     

Developing indigenous tourism in the bomas: critiquing issues from within the Maasai community in Tanzania

ABSTRACT

With safari attractions dominating the African tourism sector, many tourism studies in Africa have focused on wildlife and wilderness resourced-based tourism, with a secondary body of literature exploring cultural aspects of tourism. Recently many countries in the region, including Tanzania, have started to recognize the potential for stand-alone, culture-based tourism to diversify the tourism industry and for rural, economic development purposes. Drawing upon insights from local stakeholders, primarily members of the Maasai community this study identifies the critical challenges for providing indigenous cultural tourism in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania. Qualitative data for the study were collected through interviews and site visits to eight Maasai bomas (cultural tourism villages or settlements). Thematic analysis of the interviews revealed significant limiting factors affecting the development of indigenous cultural tourism amongst Maasai in Tanzania. The findings indicate that achieving success in indigenous cultural tourism is therefore challenging, and needs to incorporate specific community-based strategies which can facilitate the development of Maasai cultural tourism.     

Resident perceptions of social–ecological resilience and the sustainability of community-based tourism development in the Commonwealth of Dominica

Despite major investments in community-based tourism to diversify economies, reduce poverty and improve life quality in the Caribbean, little is known about what conditions lead to resilience and sustainability. Sustainability from a resilience theory perspective is the likelihood an existing system of resource use will persist indefinitely without a decline in social and natural resource bases. Undertaking activities to enhance resilience and sustainability improves a system's ability to persevere, adapt and learn to meet challenges from unanticipated economic, political or natural events. This study investigated six communities in the Commonwealth of Dominica, all part of a seven-year community tourism program, and examined residents' perceptions of the social, institutional, economic and ecological resilience of their community, and therefore the resilience and sustainability of community tourism development. It used a new scale using eight steps suggested by Devellis' scale development methodology. Data indicated moderate to low resilience in all four domains across the communities. This suggests that communities should invest in strengthening social bonds, developing capacity in local institutions, in diversifying the tourism product and controlling infrastructure development. Indicators measuring trust, networks, local control, flexible governance, leakage prevention and controlled infrastructure development emerged as important in assessing social–ecological resilience and sustainability.     

Protected areas,tourism and community livelihoods linkages: a comprehensive analysis approach

This study explores the linkages among protected areas, tourism and community livelihoods in a rural setting. The Chobe National Park and Chobe Enclave Community Trust, Botswana, provide the context for this study. Data were collected through a community asset mapping exercise, semi-structured interviews, and published and unpublished data sources. Data were analyzed and interpreted using the community capital framework (CCF) that provided a comprehensive approach. The study identified that protected areas, tourism and community livelihoods linkages have many inter-dependent community capitals relationships. The enhancement of community capitals was facilitated by a shift from government-controlled to multi-level governance arrangements that recognize community wildlife-based tourism potential co-exist with protected areas, have influence on community livelihoods and nurture positive linkages. Results also indicate that linkages are dependent on community capitals transformation or lack thereof; the linkages have an influential effect on the whole ecosystem on which protected areas, tourism and community livelihoods operate. The study provides a new methodological approach in understanding the changing relationships among tourism, conservation and community development by expanding community capitals framework. This study's findings also inform planners, managers, and policy makers to critically evaluate the processes of change and devise interventions accordingly.     

A Survey of Tourist Expectations and Economic Potential for a Proposed Wildlife Sanctuary in a Maasai Group Ranch near Amboseli,Kenya

This paper looks at the ethical, ecological, community, economic and management issues in extending wildlife tourism and conservation beyond national park boundaries in Kenya. It specifically examines the proposed Kuku Community Conservation Area (KCCA). Prerequisites, including the availability of diverse tourist attractions, local community support, the support of tourism investors and other stakeholders are considered. Research focused on interviews with tourists and tour operators visiting the Tsavo-Amboseli Ecosystem. Wildlife was the number one attraction for over 75% of tourists, though some were attracted by the Maasai culture. Most of the tourists (over 75%) were willing to visit a community wildlife sanctuary. This willingness was independent of their belief that the Maasai were actually benefiting from wildlife resources (p > 0.20) but was dependent (p < 0.001) on their desire to have the Maasai benefit. Most of them (over 70%) wanted the Maasai Community to benefit from wildlife and tourism, even though a majority (over 70%) did not know the role the community played in conservation, or (over 80% of them) the socio-economic burden that wildlife places on local communities. A majority (over 60%) of tourists had not visited a Maasai cultural centre, but most (over 70%) would have visited if they knew what was presented there. Based on a simple management model of 46 staff, KCCA could potentially generate a net Ksh10.35 million (US$147,867) annually, in addition to revenue from a proposed cultural centre and resource access benefits for the local community. With the existing tourist attractions in the area and with potential partnerships with tour companies, maximum benefit to the community from the successful tourism industry already operating in the area can be realised, hence legitimising wildlife conservation for the community.     

Changes on traditional livelihood activities and lifestyles caused by tourism development in the Okavango Delta,Botswana

The Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) program in Botswana aims at achieving conservation and rural development. In the Okavango Delta, some communities are involved in tourism through CBNRM to improve their livelihoods. However, research has not adequately analyzed changes caused by CBNRM on traditional livelihood activities and lifestyles. This study, therefore, uses modernization theory to analyze changes on traditional livelihood activities and lifestyles caused by CBNRM at Sankoyo, Mababe and Khwai villages in the Okavango Delta. Using primary and secondary data sources, results indicate that CBNRM is causing a decline in traditional livelihood activities like subsistence hunting, gathering, crop and livestock farming. As a result, a modern cash economy has emerged. New livelihood activities done by communities include: employment in CBNRM projects, the sale of crafts to tourists and thatching grass to tourism lodges. Income derived from CBNRM affords households to build modern houses, buy foreign foods and household equipment like: four-burner gas stoves, kitchen utensils, and satellite televisions. Conversely, this causes a decline in the consumption of traditional foods and the use of huts and household utensils. CBNRM is thus a modernization tool since it is causing a transformation of traditional livelihood activities and lifestyles. However, even though changes in livelihood activities and lifestyles may be an indication of the dynamism of culture in study villages, sudden change and modernization may increase livelihood insecurity. As such, tourism planning should ensure that modernization is sensitive to traditional economic systems and the need for rural livelihood sustainability.     

Social capital: An investment towards community resilience in the collaborative natural resources management of community-based tourism schemes

Community-based tourism projects appear to be the most favoured option for enhancing community livelihoods through the collaborative management of communal natural resources in land reformed areas in South Africa. A case study approach was adopted to establish the role of social capital in building community resilience through the management of common pool natural resources. Using the assemblages and systemic-resilience theories, this paper establishes which relationships between social capital and community resilience are best for pursuing successful community-based tourism schemes. Lessons were drawn from Somkhanda Community Game Reserve in the Gumbi community, KwaZulu Natal, South Africa. The paper identifies three main community resilience shocks: governance, financial and skills. It notes that strong social capital can promote the realisation of community resilience in communal natural resources management. It further points to the need for avoiding environmental romanticisation, as there is a need to focus on the complexities involved in managing communal natural resources in land reformed communities.     

Community-based tourism,social capital,and governance of post-conflict rural tourism destinations: the case of Minca,Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta,Colombia

Community-based tourism (CBT) in Colombia was identified as a strategy to reduce rural poverty and social inequalities in regions affected by political violence. The objectives of CBT are met through community and multilevel governance. Strong social capital is a necessary condition to meet such objectives. This article contributes to the theoretical and empirical analysis of the relationships among community-based tourism, social capital and governance in post-conflict contexts. Based on a set of indicators to measure social capital, and economic, sociocultural and environmental benefits perceived by the community, the case study in Minca, Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (Colombia), demonstrates that tourism barely benefits communities when there is insufficient social capital and unstructured governance due to the low presence of the government. Despite the existence of legislation favorable to the empowerment of peripheral communities, rulers lack the political incentives to strengthen the social capital required for the development of community-based tourism.     

An Integrative Approach to Tourism: Lessons from the Andes of Peru

This study compares the Andean communities of Taquile Island and Chiquian, Peru, which differ in their level of integration for their respective tourism sector. Integration was primarily defined by percentage of local people employed, type and degree of participation, decision-making power, and ownership in the local tourism sector. Principally social and economic aspects were measured and evaluated, recognising that considerable local support and participation in tourism decision making are linked to issues of ownership and control. It was found that higher levels of integration would lead to enhanced socioeconomic benefits for the community. A framework for community integration was developed that could help guide research, planning, development and evaluation of community-based tourism projects.     

Community-based Tourism Enterprises Development in Kenya: An Exploration of Their Potential as Avenues of Poverty Reduction

The United Nations World Tourism Organization endorses tourism for economic development and poverty reduction in developing countries, emphasising the role of micro-, small- and medium-sized tourism enterprises. In Kenya, community-based enterprises (CBEs) are preferred. This paper evaluates CBE potential and challenges for poverty reduction in Kenya. Reviewing literature on Kenyan tourism development, it uses case studies of six Kenyan CBEs spread across Kenya's tourism-focused community-based initiatives selected using opportunistic and snowball sampling. The case studies used individual in-depth semi-structured interviews with community leaders, CBE managers, tourism academics, support organisations and government officials, and focus groups with community members. The paper develops a detailed understanding of the CBEs, identifying the catalyst for their establishment and the role and degree of external intervention. It explores critical success factors, the extent to which CBEs alleviate poverty, and factors making communities welcome CBEs (or not). The results emphasise the conservation orientation of CBEs, with support agencies preferring partnership approaches involving white investment which inadequately addresses community priorities. Through foreign resource control and heavy reliance on donor funding, CBEs promote neocolonialism and reinforce dependency. An urgent review of the support framework for community tourism development in Kenya integrating the principles of sustainable development is advocated.     

The impacts of local arts agencies on community placemaking and heritage tourism

The arts and culture have been shown to foster economic development by attracting workers and businesses in the knowledge industry, spurring tourism, and improving the housing market. However, beyond financial capital, they significantly impact other forms of capital in the community, as well. The Community Capital Framework (CCF) is an analytical tool widely used to observe and critique the relationships among various types of community assets: social, human, financial, creative, built, natural, and political. This study used the CCF to assess the impacts of community-based arts centers on their communities, particularly on heritage tourism. The results demonstrated effects on social, environmental, and business assets, primarily in the financial, social, cultural, and human capitals. The results can be used by community leaders as a starting point when discussing the costs and benefits of investing in a new local arts agency.     

The community participation process in ecotourism development: a case study of the community of Sogoog,Bayan-Ulgii,Mongolia

Theories on community participation in ecotourism development advocate obtaining maximum levels of both community control and benefit to achieve sustainable tourism. This paper explores issues in community-based ecotourism development in a small, remote community in western Mongolia. It assesses the community's desire to develop ecotourism, their understanding of the issues involved and the feasibility of the process in a poor herding community, where 63% are herdsmen, frequently absent with their herds. Using responses from 100 participants together with interviews with key stakeholders, it describes and analyzes the difficulties in establishing community participation and ecotourism implementation. Findings revealed that long-term viable community-based ecotourism development in remote areas requires close collaboration and sustained support from trusted community leaders and from knowledgeable and committed outside stakeholders. Approaches need to be carefully tailored to local circumstances, not “one size fits all”. Key areas of concern were environmental and cultural, including fears that their tradition of hospitality might be compromised, perceptions of the local NGO's benefits to the community and local, often naïve, expectations of ecotourism development. Despite fears, over 90% of those interviewed were willing to participate in an ecotourism project in this high-risk, unforgiving economic and climatic setting.