A decade of injury monitoring in the New Zealand adventure tourism sector: A summary risk analysis

Adventure tourism safety has received relatively little research attention despite the level of risk inherent in many adventure activities. In New Zealand, an absence of surveillance or monitoring of injury in the adventure sector has had important implications for the management of tourist safety. A series of studies conducted by the authors between 1996 and 2006 have sought to address this knowledge gap, with the aim of identifying the extent and nature of adventure tourism injury using a range of primary and secondary data sources. The paper reports on findings from a summary risk analysis of these studies, including evidence for the scale of the adventure tourism injury problem, and ranking of degree of risk for a range of factors for safety in adventure tourism participation. A conceptual model to assist risk management in the adventure sector is presented, and implications of findings for management and the adventure sector are discussed.     

Motivational and Behavioral Profiling of Visitors to Forest-based Recreational Destinations in Sri Lanka

The tourism industry plays a key role in regional and destination development. As negative environmental and socio-cultural impacts of mass tourism become more common, the appeal of alternative forms of tourism, especially ecotourism, continues to increase. With rising demand, ecotourism operators are facing the task of meeting expectations of diverse consumers of ecotourism products. Accordingly, the need to define and distinguish ecotourists from other types of tourists has become important. The importance of using a behavioral approach to distinguish ecotourists from other types of tourists is emphasized by tourism scholars. This study developed distinct motivational and behavioral profiles of visitors to forest-based ecotourism sites in Sri Lanka. Results identified four different types of tourists based on their behavioral and motivational characteristics: ecotourists, picnickers, egoistic tourists, and adventure tourists. Broad implications of visitor profiling are also discussed. This approach can help ecotourism operators to better tailor marketing strategies and increase visitor satisfaction.     

Measuring the ethical nature of tourism operators

Selected ecotourism, adventure, fishing, cruiseline, and golf operators were studied in an effort to determine possible ethical differences among them as distinct groups. Through the implementation of a multidimensional ethics scale, the resulting data illustrate that ecotourism operators were in fact more ethical than their counterparts in the other groups. This became apparent on the basis of analyzing their responses to ethical economic, social, and ecological issues outlined in three scenarios. The paper examines the influence of education, organizational size, and the use of codes of ethics in day-to-day business operation and practice to help explain the differences that exist among the participating groups.     

Can Sanctions and Rewards Explain Conformance Behaviour of Tour Operators with Ecotourism Guidelines?

Ecotourism's appeal as a conservation and development tool rests in its potential to provide local economic benefits while maintaining ecological resource integrity through low-impact, non-consumptive resource use. Some, however, question its contribution to conservation and community development, citing negative impacts, such as solid waste generation, habitat destruction, and sociocultural ills. This paper, based on a comparative study in Costa Rica, explores some of these issues. Study findings were mixed regarding ecotourism's effectiveness as a conservation and community development tool. Survey respondents saw legal restrictions as more influential than tourism in prompting declines in deforestation and hunting rates. Likewise, respondents did not feel tourism operators were significant players in raising environmental awareness. The research also revealed that direct employment in ecotourism was associated with pro-conservation practices, but indirect benefits showed stronger associations in generating pro-conservation perspectives. Little evidence was found to suggest that people are investing tourism-generated income in environmentally threatening practices. Research findings also indicated that scale influences tourism's benefits and negative impacts and that, where ecotourism dominates local economies, towns may become economically vulnerable. The paper concludes by recognising that ecotourism would be most effective as a component of a broader conservation strategy and offers suggestions to improve ecotourism's potential.     

Providing Ecotourism Excursions for Cruise Passengers

The aim of this paper is to argue that destinations can do more to offer coastal ecotourism experiences for cruise passengers, and in doing so they may secure a more sustainable product. An analysis of shore-side excursions currently available to P&O passengers in the Caribbean is presented. Excursions are classified against textbook tourism-type definitions. Time constraints imposed by cruise operators and an emphasis on selling rather than education are suggested as key factors that mean the limited number of existing ecotourism excursions were categorised as ‘soft’ rather than ‘hard’ ecotourism. Solutions demand concerted effort from all parties. Flexibility from cruise operators; political will and product development from destinations, and investment of time and energy from the tourists themselves. Ultimately, ecotourism excursions must embrace brand management, creating and delivering well-defined promises, so that cruise passengers can make intelligence-led decisions. In the Caribbean this requires a paradigm shift by the cruise operators in order to establish a meaningful and effective dialogue with groups such as the Caribbean Tourism Organisation.     

Understanding the Impact of Ecotourism Resort Experiences on Tourists’ Environmental Attitudes and Behavioural Intentions

This study explored the conservation benefits of environmental management practices and nature experiences provided at a major Australian ecotourism resort. To achieve this purpose the study investigated changes in tourists’ environmental knowledge, awareness, attitudes and behavioural intentions between pre-visit and post-visit stages. Overall, there were few statistically significant differences between the pre-visit and post-visit samples. This study found, however, significant effects of (1) visitor awareness of, and (2) involvement in, the environmental management practices, and (3) participation in nature tour activities on environmental attitudes and behaviours. It is suggested that awareness of in-resort environmental practices and satisfying experiences in ecotourism accommodation may lead to reinforcing visitors’ favourable environmental attitudes, thus increasing their interest in further ecotourism experiences. Through these cumulative effects, ecotourism accommodation could achieve its educative goal.     

Self-identification of ecotourists

Although ecotourism has frequently been examined in the literature, a consensus has not yet been reached globally as to what constitutes ecotourism. This paper suggests an alternative to the continuing debates among tourism researchers regarding their own views on what ecotourism should be and on who ecotourists are. Instead, this paper contends that tourists’ own self-interpretations of ecotourism and self-identification of ecotourists may be a more meaningful and practical way forward. This study examines the ecotourism market for West Virginia by applying this self-identification approach. The results indicate that 39.4% of respondents knew about the term “ecotourism”, and that 22.2% or 12.0 million of the state's visitors in 2008 were ecotourists. By comparison to non-ecotourists, these self-identified ecotourists were found to be more environmentally concerned and responsible, more dedicated to nature, more supportive of tourism accreditation programs, and more likely to patronize businesses with good environmental practices, even at a higher cost. This has significant implications for sustainable tourism development in the state as these findings can help to convince tourism operators who may see the potential benefits through being involved in a certification program proposed by West Virginia Department of Protection. Research limitations and future research needs are discussed.     

Recruitment and Retention Practices in Independent and Chain Restaurants

Abstract

The management of employees in the restaurant industry is a major challenge that operators must address as companies work to find the best employees in a shrinking labor market. An exploratory study of twenty restaurants (ten independent and ten chain restaurants) investigated similarities and differences in employee recruitment and retention practices. Personal face-to-face interviews with managers disclosed a variety of interesting practices and ideas in the management areas of recruitment, interviewing and hiring, incentives, discipline, and retention. Environmental issues (relating to atmosphere and work environment) were most frequently cited by managers as reasons employees choose to work and remain in restaurants. Compensation and monetary awards were second in importance, followed by work schedule. This analysis provides an understanding from the manager's viewpoint of why employees work in restaurants and offers a perspective in current practices in employee recruitment and retention processes.     

Ecotourism and the Myth of Indigenous Stewardship

This paper questions the legitimacy of ecological stewardship as an innate characteristic of traditional societies, a widely held belief in much academic work on ecotourism and manifest in ecotourism operations. Evidence from biologists, archaeologists and anthropologists is used to show that traditional societies found it difficult to manage resources in a sustainable way, with over-utilisation as the norm. Armed with this knowledge, the paper argues that there may be serious philosophical and operational problems inherent in packaging aboriginal ecotourism as having a superior environmental ethic, and a need for further research and changed management practices.     

An analysis and assessment of environmental operating practices in hotel and resort properties

The objective of this research study is to examine the environmental operating practices of hotels and resorts to identify common operating activities and examples of ‘best practices’. The findings illustrate a lack of systemized measurement and documentation of utility consumption rates and costs in individualized properties. This study also finds that corporate benchmarks for utility consumption are not effective benchmarks for nonaffiliated hotels and resorts to achieve. This study also finds that the education of hotel owners and operators is the key to understanding the benefits of implementing environmental management practices.     

Tourism Sustainability and Health Impacts in High Altitude Adventure,Cultural and Ecotourism Destinations: A Case Study of Nepal's Sagarmatha National Park

Sagarmatha National Park (SNP) is an ACE (adventure, cultural and ecotourism) high altitude destination. Many researchers argue that tourism development in the region is not sustainable and does not comply with ecotourism concepts. They report that SNP suffers considerable environmental, sociocultural and economic impacts. Health issues, despite the number of ailments commonly experienced by tourists, remain neglected in tourism literature. This study aims to investigate the health consequences of visiting SNP. Seven hundred and fifty questionnaires were given out during three separate seasons in 1999, of which 448 completed usable questionnaires were returned giving a 59.7% response rate. The results showthat despite good travel preparation, the majority of tourists (89.4%) suffer some form of health ailment. The most common ailments are mountain sickness, musculoskeletal pain, diarrhoea and respiratory infection. The study also shows several significant relationships between the incidence of health ailments and demographic profiles, motivation and satisfaction. It proposes that for high altitude ACE destinations like SNP, health issues should be a core component of destination management in order to ensure the sustainability of tourism development. High risk groups should be identified and tourism education should be targeted to both tourists and locals.     

A conceptual model of adventure tour guide well-being

Tour guides play a critical role in influencing visitor experiences and organisational success. The experiences of tour guides themselves however are less understood, particularly with regards to how these experiences impact on guides' well-being. Adventure tour guiding unfolds in a unique context reported to involve both high levels of emotional labour and job satisfaction. This study explored key factors that determine adventure guides' psychological well-being in this unique work context. In-depth qualitative interviews with air, land, and water-based guides identified primary, secondary, and tertiary psychological well-being determinants. Based on these findings, a conceptual model of adventure guide well-being is proposed to inform future research and practices for fostering guide well-being.     

Normative and innovative sustainable resource management at birding festivals

The sustainable ancillary resource management (SARM) practices of US-based birding festivals are investigated. A questionnaire completed by organisers of 108 of 135 identified festivals (80%) revealed several normative SARM practices such as signage re-use and container recycling, and a large number of innovative practices undertaken by one or more festivals. Cluster analysis yielded roughly equal groups of 'non-innovators', 'normative recyclers', 'innovative energy conservers', 'innovative recyclers' and 'comprehensive innovators'. SARM innovators also tended to be ecotourism innovators, while innovation was also related to attendee numbers but not festival longevity or identification of festival with 'ecotourism'. No clear diffusion effects are evident. Follow-up surveys suggested positive relationships with cost, attendee satisfaction/demand, and sense of responsibility, but not revenue generation. A dedicated organisation and sponsored certification protocols are suggested to facilitate dissemination of innovative SARM practices, which were less prevalent than expected given the nature of such events.     

The Natural State

ABSTRACT

Australian nature-based tourism and ecotourism have become popular forms of recreational activity. Tasmania attracts twice the Australian national average number of nature-based tourists and ecotourists (thirty per cent). The growth of this tourism sector has prompted measures to ensure that experiences are of high quality, and that environmental impacts are adequately managed. ISO 14000 is an environmental management and certification system often utilised as an environmental management system standard within various industries, but has not been widely applied to the Australian tourism industry. The Nature and Ecotourism Accreditation Program (NEAP) represents the most significant accreditation measure within Australia at present. This paper assesses the relevance of NEAP in the Tasmanian nature-based tourism and ecotourism industry through in-depth interviews with a key informant group and a comparative analysis of interview data. The paper introduces nature-based tourism and ecotourism definitions and discusses the growing relevance of ecotourism accreditation. The paper argues that NEAP is relevant to the Tasmanian nature-based tourism and ecotourism industry, where the quality of the natural environment forms the central focus for such experiences. Furthermore, the paper argues that NEAP can assist in supporting the State's nature-based tourism and ecotourism industry through means such as branding and promotion. However, problems exist in relation to financial issues between NEAP and operators, and the perceived overlap of NEAP with the widely implemented Tourism Council Tasmania Accreditation Program. Thus, financial issues need to be addressed by the Ecotourism Association of Australia in association with Australian Commonwealth Government subsidisation. The degree of overlap between the two programs can be effectively addressed through industry cooperation. The paper also suggests that stronger branding and promotion of NEAP can be achieved through increased industry involvement by Tourism Tasmania.     

Visitor management practices and operational sustainability: Expedition cruising in the Kimberley,Australia

The expedition cruise industry along the remote 3000 km Kimberley coast in Australia’s northwest draws on the area’s environmental and cultural assets for its tourism product and provides the main means of access for visitors. Cruises involve frequent on-shore excursions to attractions including rock pools, rock art and historic sites. This study used visitor observations and stakeholder interviews to examine potential impacts on environmental and cultural site assets, and visitor safety and experience. Visitor management practices varied strongly between operators, with vast room for improvement by some operations. Inconsistent visitor management practices contributed to a high level of avoidable risks in terms of visitor safety and negative cultural and environmental impacts. Findings from this study highlight the central role of tour guides and operational procedures for improving visitor management practices.     

Local community participation in ecotourism and conservation issues in two nature reserves in Nicaragua

This paper explores the factors influencing community participation in ecotourism and how this affects conservation in the Nature Reserves of Mombacho Volcano and Datanlí-El Diablo in Nicaragua. Information was collected using individual structured and semi-structured interviews and focus groups, with local people, farmers and tour operators, combining quantitative and qualitative techniques. The farmers in the two communities are engaged in the protection of the reserves because of environmental concern and also because their own welfare is at stake. In different ways, the farmers and communities benefit from ecotourism, but not enough. Either they are excluded from the management system, or they lack resources to promote the sites and improve infrastructure. Community participation is to a large extent dependent on the management system, but it is not the only aspect required to make ecotourism successful. A minimum of governmental support to infrastructure and local entrepreneurship is required. In the case presented, there are direct economic benefits from ecotourism, as the records of visitors illustrate. But there are many differences between the two reserves and their communities, illustrating that ecotourism development is complex and demanding, and demonstrating that ecotourism is not a “one size fits all” approach to sustainable development.     

Application of revenue management practices to the theme park industry

Revenue management (RM) has been an essential strategy to maximize revenue for many capacity-limited service industries. Considering the common industry characteristics of traditional RM industries, the nature of the theme park industry suggests potential for enhancing revenue by exercising a variety of RM techniques. This study suggests practices for theme park operators for successful RM application. In addition, this study examines how customers perceive RM practice in the theme park industry compared to a traditional RM industry, hotel industry. The findings indicate that customers seem to perceive RM practice in the theme park industry as relatively fair practices as similarly perceived for the hotel industry. The findings are encouraging for the theme park industry because a relatively similar level of its customers’ perceived fairness of the RM practice compared to the hotel industry suggests that adoption and implementation of the RM practice has great potential to become successful as it has been in traditional RM industries, such as hotels.     

Tourist use of mopeds in Queensland

Tourist use of mopeds in Queensland is encouraged by licensing regulations permitting moped riding for car licence holders, who may lack prior knowledge or experience of moped or motorcycle use. Using official crash and registration data, this research examines moped use by tourists, identified as crash-involved riders holding an interstate or overseas licence. Tourists were more likely to be younger, female, in single vehicle crashes, and deemed at fault than Queensland licence holders. Potential safety issues include poor riding skills, inexperience, inattention and lack of protective clothing. Moped rental companies play an important role in managing client crash and injury risks. These risks could also be reduced through introduction of more stringent licensing requirements, though this may be detrimental to moped rental companies as well as to tourist mobility and enjoyment. The discussion considers the relevance of adventure tourism perspectives and theory to the use of mopeds by tourists.     

Ecotourism social media initiatives in China

The purpose of this study is to investigate the use of social media by ecotourism management agencies and how this potentially changes the relationship between the ecotourist and the natural environment. It examines the meaning of ecotourism and the way that social media shapes visitor perceptions and meaning through an examination of the content of 775 Sina microblog postings from five leading ecotourism site management agencies in China. In order to gain a deeper understanding of the social media postings, a series of semi-structured interviews was also conducted with followers and management agencies. The findings provide an enhanced understanding of ecotourism marketing and its impacts on the ecotourist while also creating a framework for the use of social media to market ecotourism. The framework outlines the importance of the meanings associated with this form of communication through its promotional appeal to tourists and the outcomes for both the ecotourist and site management.     

Analysing the Promotion,Product and Visitor Expectations of Urban Tourism: Auckland,New Zealand as a Case Study

Abstract

Urban tourism is generally not recognized as a concept. There appears to be a lack of understanding by many tourism operators that tourists visit urban destinations primarily because they are multifunctional and offer a wide variety of activities. This study reports the findings of an analysis of 160 tourism brochures by 120 different Auckland-based operators and a survey of 170 tourists. The results indicate that there appears to be a mismatch between supply and demand with tourists undertaking urban activities while the industry is primarily offering outdoor and adventure type activities. The challenge for the future is to reformulate and promote an image which is consistent with the supply attributes.