Real (adaptation) options and the valuation of equity: some empirical evidence

Data from 1,374 firms across four broad industrial groupings are used to assess the contribution that real (adaptation) options make to overall equity values. The analysis indicates that real (adaptation) options make a significant contribution to the equity value of firms with a market to book ratio (of equity) of around unity or less. As the market to book ratio grows beyond this level, however, the contribution made by real (adaptation) options decays quickly away and equity values are mainly comprised of the present value of the dividends that firms are expected to pay. This means that for around one in every five of the firms in our sample real (adaptation) options make a significant contribution to overall equity value. Thus, while linear equity valuation models would seem to be appropriate for the substantial majority of firms on which our sample is based, there is a sizeable minority of firms where real (adaptation) options have a significant impact on equity values. For this latter group of firms there will be a non-linear relationship between equity value and its determining variables. This has important implications for the regression procedures that are applied in this area of accounting research.     

关系交易、内部控制质量与公允价值的选用——基于投资性房地产视角的实证研究

以2009-2016年沪深 A 股上市房地产公司为研究样本,基于资产专用性基本理论,实证检验供应商/客户关系型交易是否以及如何影响投资性房地产公允价值的选择使用,并考察内部控制在其中的调节作用.研究发现:随着关系型交易比例的增加,公司对投资性房地产使用公允价值后续计量的动机增强,但是这种动机在内控质量高的公司会受到一定程度的抑制.同时,供应商/客户关系型交易对企业会计政策选择行为具有重要影响,而健全有效的内部控制具有对企业会计选择行为的利弊制衡与风险管控作用.     

The attack on share buybacks

Corporate share buybacks are under attack, mainly from the political left, but also to some degree from the right. Critics advocate increasing the tax on buybacks in the hope of inducing firms to invest more and in ways that benefit workers. This attack on buybacks reflects a misunderstanding of basic (textbook-level) finance principles. The approach advocated by critics will backfire at growth-stage firms, which will invest less, not more, because a payout-tax increase will reduce the supply of equity infusions. At mature firms that are generating ample free cash flow, managers can easily evade the (unattractive-for-shareholders) real investments that critics desire by investing retained cash in financial assets. Buyback critics should recognise that punishing cash payouts per se would be counterproductive, and should focus instead on making a case for legislation that creates incentives that directly promote the specific behaviours they desire.     

An Aggregation Theorem for the Valuation of Equity Under Linear Information Dynamics

We state an Aggregation Theorem which shows that the recursion value of equity is functionally proportional to its adaptation value. Since the recursion value of equity is equal to its book value plus the expected present value of its abnormal earnings, it follows that the adaptation value of equity can normally be determined by a process of simple quadrature. We demonstrate the application of the Aggregation Theorem using two stochastic processes. The first uses the linear information dynamics of the Ohlson (1995) model. The second uses linear information dynamics based on the Cox, Ingersoll and Ross (1985)'square root' process. Both these processes lead to closed form expressions for the adaptation and overall market value of equity. There are, however, many other processes which are compatible with the Aggregation Theorem. These all show that the market value of equity will be a highly convex function of its recursion value. The empirical evidence we report for UK companies largely supports the convexity hypothesis.     

Organisational change and performance in long-lived small firms: a real options approach

This paper supports two key principles of real options reasoning: (a) the value of waiting and (b) the value of staging. It tests whether real options logic applies to small firms implementing significant changes (e.g. in technology) in a model of small firm performance, estimated on data collected by interviews with entrepreneurs. We found that to achieve a higher value by waiting, a delicate balance of precipitators of change against time until exercise is necessary (e.g. if there were just one or two precipitators, then waiting would certainly raise the value). Similarly, to achieve a higher value by staging, the entrepreneur needs to balance embedding against investment time. Thus, provided that investment time is less than 1¼ years, we found that embedding will raise the value. Overall, this implies that strategic flexibility in investment decisions is necessary for good long-run performance of small firms.     

中国金融压力与经济增长的动态关联研究

本文依据有代表性的金融指标的结构化特点,构建具有时效性的金融压力指数以识别中国金融体系的压力,运用马尔可夫区制转移模型(MS-VAR)研究中国金融体系压力的区制特征,并利用Granger线性与非线性因果关系检验验证了金融压力与工业增加值的增长关系。研究表明,2008年以来,中国金融压力较高;2010年一季度后金融压力有所降低但是波动较大;金融压力指数对工业增加值有显著地线性和非线性Granger影响;对金融压力指数进行预测的结果表明,中国金融系统压力在2011年下半年以后处于低压力区制的高位置波动,并有转向高压力区制的趋势,金融系统表现为不稳定。     

Earnings Momentum,Adaptation Value,and Nonlinearities in the Valuation of Chinese Equity Stocks

We demonstrate that when the variables comprising a firm's investment opportunity set depend on their past values then the present value of the cash flows the firm expects to earn will be stated in terms of the levels and the momentum of the affected variables. It is also shown that the market value of a firm's equity is comprised of the present value of the cash flows it expects to earn from operating under its existing investment opportunity set plus the value of the real options the firm possesses to modify or even completely change its existing investment opportunity set. Our empirical analysis, based on both Chinese and US data, shows that earnings momentum and the adaptation and growth options typically available to firms all appear to have a significant impact on equity prices.     

A real options perspective on the future of the Euro

A break-up of the Eurozone is no longer regarded as implausible. This will be a costly and irreversible decision in conditions of continuing uncertainty; therefore it is amenable to analysis in the real options framework. We do so by solving as an n-dimensional optimal stopping problem with country-specific shocks and “convergence” of member economies. We compare a complete break-up with individual country departures. In calibrated solutions for a symmetric case we find a non-negligible but small option value. Furthermore, we find a new theoretical result on the non-monotonicity of abandonment threshold with respect to volatility.     

House Prices, Fundamentals and Bubbles

Abstract:  This paper studies actual (real) house prices relative to fundamental (real) house values. Such a focus is warranted since housing constitutes a large fraction of most household portfolios, and its characteristics are such that, in contrast to what prevails in financial markets, arbitrage will be limited and hence correction toward 'true' value is likely to be a prolonged process. Using UK data and a time-varying present value approach, our results preclude the existence of an explosive rational bubble due to non-fundamental factors. We further find that intrinsic bubbles have an important role to play in determining actual house prices although price dynamics appear to impact, particularly in periods of strong deviation from fundamental value. Price dynamics are found to be driven by momentum behaviour.     

Asset value management in the Portuguese real estate sector

This paper analyzes whether real estate investment fund managers use asset valuation discretion strategically to achieve financial reporting objectives. Portuguese real estate investment funds represent a unique opportunity to investigate executive behavior regarding accounting choice, as fund managers may choose to use historical cost, fair value or a mixed system (historical cost with internal revaluations) to value fund properties. We also investigate the factors that influence this strategic behavior. Empirical results confirm that fund managers manage asset valuations in order to avoid net asset value declines, particularly in a period of financial distress. We also observe that funds with a higher level of past unconditional conservatism are more likely to manage asset values. With respect to corporate governance issues, we conclude that audit quality reduces managerial discretion and that the conflicts that may arise between fund management company shareholders and fund participants due to management fees do not seem to have impact on fund managers’ opportunistic behavior.     

基于均衡分析的我国房地产泡沫度分析

基于均衡分析得到一个检测房地产价格合理性的理论参照,通过将计算出的房地产泡沫度在时间上做纵向对比以及在不同地区间做横向对比,考察现阶段我国房地产泡沫的严重程度。结果表明,现阶段我国大陆总体上的房地产泡沫度与房地产过热阶段的1993年相差不大,与楼市高峰时的香港有不小的差距;我国内地省市的房地产泡沫度一般较低,部分沿海地区接近或超过了楼市高峰时的香港。     

房地产企业债务期限结构及其优化研究——以沪深A股市场上市公司为例

基于债务融资成本理论,以沪深证券市场A股房地产上市公司为研究样本,实证考察债务融资期限结构对企业价值的影响,进而探讨债务期限结构的优化以实现企业价值的提升。通过逐步回归模型的实证分析结果表明,房地产企业债务期限结构与企业价值之间呈倒U型关系,行业最优债务期限结构比例均值为36.4929%,且抽样分析检验给出的最优长期债务比例区间为34%~38%。     

资产价格波动的通货膨胀预期效应——基于房地产市场的实证分析

通过对房地产市场的实证研究,证实了资产市场资产价格的变化会影响到人们对未来经济形势的判断,进而影响到公众对未来消费品市场价格的判断,根据“预期自我实现”的原理,会对实际的通货膨胀或者通货紧缩产生影响。研究表明,房地产市场价格走势对通货膨胀预期的影响,要大于房地产市场资金变化对通胀预期的影响,所以监管层要管理好通货膨胀和通货膨胀预期,就要加强对资产市场尤其是房地产市场的监控,防止房价的大起大落。     

Devaluation, Fiscal Deficits, and the Real Exchange Rate

This article examines the use of fiscal policies to sustainthe effects of a nominal devaluation on the real exchange rate.It is shown that the magnitude of the change in the real exchangerate depends not only on the size of the devaluation and thedegree of fiscal adjustment but also on the means by which thefiscal deficit is reduced. The change in the nominal exchangerate necessary to maintain the depreciation of the real exchangerate will depend on whether the fiscal deficit is eliminatedby increasing taxes or by reducing government expenditures ontraded and nontraded goods. The required depreciation of thedomestic currency will be larger if the fiscal deficit is reducedby increasing taxes than it will be if the deficit is cut bylowering government expenditures. Further, the depreciationwould be smaller if the cuts in expenditure fell on traded ratherthan nontraded goods. This result implies that the authoritiesmust ensure consistency between exchange rate action and policiesto reduce fiscal imbalances in order to achieve a desired levelof the real exchange rate necessary to attain balance of paymentsequilibrium.     

有限理性、房地产市场波动与金融稳定

本文认为,房地产市场波动对金融稳定影响的根本原因在于房地产市场存在有限理性。房地产市场有限理性包括三个方面,分别是投资者有限理性、房地产开发商有限理性和金融机构有限理性。在此基础上,本文通过构造房地产市场有限理性,论证了房地产市场波动对金融稳定的影响过程。     

实体企业金融化对企业价值的影响

选取2010—2017年A股上市公司面板数据,研究实体企业金融化对企业价值的影响,探究企业金融化—投资效率—企业价值的作用路径,分析融资约束水平在金融化程度与企业价值之间的异质性作用。结果表明：出于市场套利动机,实体企业金融化与企业价值之间呈现“倒U型”关系。投资效率在实体企业金融化影响企业价值过程中发挥中介效应;当融资约束较高时,金融化程度正向影响企业价值;当融资约束较低时,金融化程度负向影响企业价值。     

Long guarantees with short duration: the rolling annuity

We present a new type of with-profits annuities which offer lifelong, yet hedgeable, guarantees. The rolling annuity gives a minimum lifelong guarantee at the time of contribution complemented with a series of guaranteed increases prior to retirement. Importantly, the initial guarantee and the subsequent increases are all set at prevailing market rates and hence are not known in advance. The structure of the guarantee implies that, prior to the last increase, the liability is equivalent to a zero-coupon bond maturing at the next increase and can therefore easily be hedged in the financial markets. Furthermore, the short duration implies that the financial and regulatory value will (essentially) coincide. We show financial fairness and we derive the reserve and thereby the hedging strategy. We also consider longevity risk, the duration profile, and report on a simulation study of the real value of the final payout.     

甘肃省房地产价格波动对区域金融稳定的影响研究

本文在对甘肃省房地产价格波动及区域金融稳定概念进行界定的基础上,分析了房地产价格波动对区域金融稳定的影响机制,选取了甘肃省2002年至2011年的相关数据,构建了甘肃省区域金融稳定指标体系,并用熵值法计算出区域金融稳定综合指数,然后建立VAR模型,实证检验了房地产价格波动对区域金融稳定的影响.研究发现：在最优滞后2期内,房地产价格波动对区域金融稳定产生一定的影响,并且二者之间呈现负相关关系,也即房地产价格波动越大,区域金融稳定性就会降低,房地产价格波动越小区域金融稳定状况越好.     

投资性房地产公允价值计量的价值相关性研究

2007年执行新会计准则后,与2006年相比,我国上市公司对投资性房地产在运用公允价值后续计量的情况下,投资性房地产公司采用公允价值计量的房地产类、银行类整体公允价值变化额有积极的市场反应,与股票价值具有价值相关性,会计信息的决策有用性有所提高。其他类投资性房地产整体公允价值变化额未出现积极的市场反应。