An analysis of visitor movement patterns using travel networks in a large marine park, north-western Australia

Good management of tourist destinations can be enhanced by understanding the movement patterns of visitors. Different itinerary types and the concept of distance decay have been explored but there has been little application to within-destination movements or, more broadly, to protected areas. Coastal marine parks offer a challenging location for such research given the connectivity between the water and adjacent land components. The aim of the study was to describe, and quantify, within-destination movement patterns of visitors travelling for recreation throughout Ningaloo Marine Park, in north-western Australia, using various modes of travel. Data were collected using 1208 site-based interviews over a 12-month period. Results revealed visitors were highly dependent on the road network and, once at their accommodation, more than a third did not travel any further to participate in recreation. Conversely, some sites had such a strong attraction that respondents, especially first time and international visitors, travelled long distances for recreation at these sites. These findings contribute to a small, but growing, body of research on within-destination patterns. Such information is essential for protected area planning and to help managers efficiently allocate their often-limited resources.     

Bundling attractions for rural tourism development

Tourism is often regarded as a viable solution to economic crisis, especially for remote areas without many development options. While many tourism destinations have strong cultural or heritage assets, not all destinations have primary attractions that can bring visitors to the region. Rather than developing special interest “themes”, rural areas that do not have enough of any one type of tourism resource to act as a primary draw may consider bundling different attraction types to increase visitation. The purpose of this study is to investigate the preferences of visitors to secondary heritage sites and explore the relationship between heritage tourism and alternative, non-heritage activities in rural areas. Findings revealed that motivation to visit small-scale heritage sites consisted of two dimensions: learning and recreation. The two motivational dimensions influenced visitors’ interest in different heritage attractions and likelihood of visiting heritage tourism “scenarios”. As for alternative activities, there was a cluster of “popular” activities that were enjoyed by both learning-oriented and recreation-oriented respondents, but recreation-oriented visitors were more interested in nature-based activities and sport-related activities than learning-oriented visitors. Findings can help rural communities improve secondary attractions and diversify their tourism product by bundling heritage attractions with non-heritage activities.     

Non-compliance in national parks: An extension of the theory of planned behaviour model with pro-environmental values

Non-compliance at national parks is a major problem around the world. This study focused on visitors' intentions to venture off-trail at the Blue Mountains National Park, Australia (BMNP). An extension of the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) with the new ecological paradigm of pro-environmental values (NEP) was developed and tested to understand visitors’ off-trail intentions. We surveyed 325 BMNP visitors through convenience sampling. Subjective norm was the strongest predictor followed by attitudes. The role of perceived behavioural control was not significant. The proposed extended TPB model had a marginal relationship between pro-environmental values and intentions using regression analysis. The overall study results suggested that the role of pro-environmental values is more suitable for predicting general environmental worldviews as compared to the TPB being more suitable for predicting specific behavioural intentions.     

Perceived crowding in recreation settings: An urban case study

Abstract

Research on crowding in recreation areas has focused primarily on back‐country settings. This study tests some of the axioms developed from this research and from studies conducted in non‐recreation settings using data from a case study in an urban park. The actual number of visitors present was found to be the most important individual predictor of perceived crowding in this setting. Results suggest that more developed parks, in more urban contexts, may elicit different images and expectations about visitor density. The implications of these findings, as they relate both to studies of perceived crowding and the social definition of parks in general, are discussed.     

National park visitors' car-use intention: A norm-neutralization model

Reducing private car use is an efficient way to promote the sustainable development of national parks. However, many visitors persist in using their cars, even when they are aware of the environmental damage it causes. This study proposed a norm-neutralization model to investigate why national park visitors persist in car-based trips by partially integrating the theory of planned behavior, the norm-activation model, and neutralization theory. The results indicated that neutralization techniques can effectively reduce the effects of social norms and attitudes on car-based trip intention in a conflicting-norm context. The strongest predictors of behavior intention were attitudes toward the behavior while neutralization techniques were the second strongest. The effect of pro-driving norms showed a significant reduction when neutralization techniques were added, but pro-environmental norms did not have a significant effect on behavior intention. Practical and theoretical implications, as well as directions for future research, are discussed.     

Using Visitors' Motivations to Provide Learning Opportunities at Water-based Recreation Areas

With the increase of nature-based tourism and recreation on public lands in the United States, recreation and tourism planners have an opportunity to provide environmental education to a wide diversity of people. However, recreationists visit natural areas to attain a variety of experiences and benefits, which might or might not include learning. Through an examination of visitors to fresh-water springs in north central Florida, this study identified (1) the recreation benefits visitors to fresh-water springs most desire, (2) the role learning plays in recreationists' motivations to visit water-based recreation areas, and (3) the recreation opportunities (i.e. facilities and services) that will best provide learning opportunities for all visitors. Respondents were divided into four groups according to where they were surveyed and whether or not they had a strong interest in learning. Three of the four groups indicated an interest in developed services and facilities (e.g. visitor centres and museums) to provide for learning opportunities. Results also showed that some visitors' desires for learning benefits were not related to developed facilities and were more closely associated with passive recreation activities and settings. Specific planning implications for the four types of naturebased tourists are described.     

Psychographic segmentation of park visitor markets: evidence for the utility of sensation seeking

This paper examines whether a segmentation of a large sample (N=9495) of visitors to parks in Ontario, Canada in terms of the psychological push factor motive sensation seeking enables identification of differences between them in park-related attitudes and behaviours. A cluster analysis of individuals based on their attitudes to three dimensions of park experience identified in this study (active enjoyment of nature, escape stress, and sensation seeking) resulted in three clusters of visitors (1 group of higher, and 2 groups of lower, sensation seekers). The higher sensation seekers were found to differ from both groups of lower sensation seekers on a broad variety of attitudes and behaviours to do with parks. In particular, higher sensation seekers visit parks more often to camp than do lower sensation seekers, differ from lower sensation seekers regarding the kinds of things that are incentives for them to visit parks, and with respect to the sources of information about parks they are likely to use, are more likely than lower sensation seekers are to be involved in each of a broad range of activities during their park visits, and place higher importance on numerous facilities and services as well as being more satisfied with them. The implications of these results for park marketing and management are examined, and directions for further research on this topic, especially regarding risk management in parks, are also considered.     

The Relationship Between Visitor-Based Standards of Quality and Existing Conditions in Parks and Outdoor Recreation

Abstract

Parks and related areas are increasingly adopting management-by-objectives/indicator-based frameworks to protect resources and the quality of visitor experiences. Indicator-based frameworks rely on development of indicators and standards of quality, and research has been developed to measure visitor-based standards of quality. In this research approach, visitors to parks and related areas judge the acceptability of a range of recreation-related impacts to natural/cultural resources and the quality of the visitor experience. The purpose of this paper is to explore the strength and variability of the relationship between visitor-based standards of quality and existing conditions in parks and related areas. Data were derived from studies conducted in 11 U.S. national park system units between 1995 and 2002. Results indicated that visitor-based standards of quality are generally unrelated to existing conditions. Implications of these findings are explored for research on visitor-based standards of quality and related issues, and for the management of parks and outdoor recreation.     

Good governance in protected areas: an evaluation of stakeholders’ perceptions in British Columbia and Ontario Provincial Parks

As government funding is reduced and tourism-based fees are increasingly used to fund protected area operations, two options are often used for management: transfer of tourism services to the private sector or operation of tourism services by a government agency that functions like a corporation. This paper reports stakeholders’ views concerning governance for two prominent, but different, management models for protected areas’ tourism services in Canada. British Columbia Provincial Parks uses profit-making companies to deliver park services; Ontario Provincial Parks uses the parastatal approach, where park staff members provide most services directly. Surveys of five key stakeholder groups (park staff, visitors, contractors working in park, nearby residents and NGOs with an interest in parks) provided higher rankings of perceptions of governance criteria closer to good governance for the Ontario approach, with important differences found between some groups and amongst some criteria in both park systems. This research suggests that the parastatal model is perceived as superior by important stakeholder groups, using the lens of standard governance criteria, compared to the outsourcing model that uses profit-making companies to provide park tourism services. This finding has implications globally where governments seek to shift park funding from government towards tourism fees and charges.     

Computer Simulation as a Tool for Planning and Management of Visitor Use in Protected Natural Areas

The United Nations Environment Programme’s Principles on Implementation of Sustainable Tourism suggest that implementing sustainable tourism must include monitoring visitor use of protected natural areas and directing it to areas where the environmental and social impacts of tourism are minimised. Thus, sustainable tourism management requires information about the spatial and temporal flow of visitor use in protected natural areas to help identify potential tourism-related threats to the natural and cultural resources of an area and the quality of visitors’ experiences. Recent research has identified at least four ways in which simulation modelling of visitor use can facilitate more informed planning and management of sustainable tourism in protected natural areas, including (1) describing existing visitor use flows; (2) monitoring the condition of ‘hard to measure’ indicator variables; (3) testing the effectiveness of alternative visitor use management practices; and (4) guiding the design of research on public attitudes. The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate, using findings from studies conducted in the Inyo National Forest and Isle Royale National Park, USA, each of these four potential contributions of computer simulation to sustainable tourism management and planning. The paper concludes with an assessment of the limitations of existing applications of computer simulation to nature-based tourism and recommendations for future research.     

Visitors’ acceptance of negative ecological impacts in national parks: comparing the explanatory power of psychographic scales in a Norwegian mountain setting

Even in protected areas, it is inevitable that any human use will produce some impact on natural resources. This study identifies visitors’ tolerance of potential negative ecological impacts from tourism activities and facilities in a Norwegian national park context, based on park visitors’ expressed degree of acceptance of negative effects on particular species of wildlife (wild reindeer and raptors) and on vegetation. Attitudes were analysed using psychographic scales, reflecting respondents’ nature orientations, their specific facility desires, their preferences in a wilderness setting and their concerns about human interaction with the natural environment. Fourteen research hypotheses were tested. Findings demonstrated that the psychographic scales explained more variation in attitudes than most social background and trip characteristics. Higher levels of education among visitors were strongly associated with increased ecological concern; age and gender were not. There was generally strong ecological awareness and eco-centrism among park visitors in general, with a small proportion of wilderness purists. Better trail conditions, signposting and interpretation were sought. But park visitors were also found to possess a complex mixture of needs and drivers. The study found significant potential for strategic alliances between tourism and conservation interests, and key value issues for park governance systems.     

Profiling the segments of visitors to Portuguese protected areas

This study identifies the diversity of domestic visitors to Portuguese protected areas (PPA) based on benefit segmentation. The segments of PPA visitors are also compared with other nature-based tourist segments using some empirical benefit segmentation literature. Data were collected by means of a self-administered questionnaire and multivariate statistics techniques (principal components, hierarchical and K-means cluster analyses) were applied. Five distinct segments of visitors were identified based on the motivation for their visit and further characterized by the perceived importance of activities, facilities and services, frequency of visit and socio-demographics. Three segments are nature-focused and two are focused on activities or events. Only one segment shows specific interests and motivations associated with ecotourism and similar characteristics to international ecotourists; moreover, the reasons for the visit in one segment are unrelated to any of the motivations of nature-based tourism. Some implications for management are also described.     

Social big data informs spatially explicit management options for national parks with high tourism pressures

Nature-based tourism in protected areas is an easily experienced ecosystem service that humans enjoy, but it acts as tourism pressures on ecosystem. Some park managers, however, lack an understanding of the spatial distribution and ecological impact of these pressures. We analyzed the size and spatial distribution of these pressures in Korean national parks, using visitor statistics and social big data. In addition, by overlay it with endangered species distribution data, we analyzed areas where tourism pressures and ecologically significant areas could be conflicted. The tourism pressure differed according to the individual protected areas’ characteristics. Due to the unevenness of the magnitude and spatial distribution of pressures, the ecological impacts could be spatially differentiated. This study suggests that tourism pressure may be a decisive factor affecting protected areas' ecosystems with increased visitors. Using social big data, managers can establish spatially explicit management policies that consider tourism pressures on individual protected areas.     

A new visitation paradigm for protected areas

Current “second generation” approaches to visitation in higher order protected areas are based on biocentric management and monitoring that positions visitors as an inherent threat. The result is suboptimal sustainability outcomes of coexistence and possibly increased conflict in an era of escalating demand, reduced public funding and growing threats to global and local biodiversity. A “third generation” model is therefore required that repositions visitors as an inherent opportunity, and augments management and monitoring accordingly with visitor motivation and mobilisation for mass participation in on-site park enhancement activities. Strategies and issues for implementation - including the model's dialectical underpinnings and its relationship to a broader context of people-focused park management -are considered, toward achieving optimal sustainability outcomes of park/visitation symbiosis.     

Investigation on Visitors' Perceptions of Recreation Impacts in Sun Moon Lake National Scenic Area in Taiwan

This research attempts to understand the visitors' perceptions of the environmental impacts caused by six recreational activities by using Sun Moon Lake National Scenic Area in Taiwan. The six recreational activities were fishing, camping, trail use, swimming, biking and motorboating. It compared the visitors' perceptions of the recreation impacts before and after the environmental impact information was provided. The convenience sampling method was used during three weekends in August 2005. The results indicated that visitors in the study were aware of the environmental impacts caused by the six recreational activities. The most harmful activity among all was motorboating and the most harmless one was biking. In addition, different variables such as gender, age and preference influenced visitors' perceptions of the recreation impacts of different types of activity. Overall, after receiving the environmental information, the visitors' perceptions of all activities moved to being more harmful than their previous perceptions. This means the environmental impact information sheet given in the post-test did change the perception of recreational impacts. In general, visitors viewed their own activities as having fewer recreational impacts than non-participants, except for the boating activity.     

Place attachment as a mediator of the relationship between nature-based recreation benefits and future visit intentions

This study examined the theoretical relationships between consumers’ perceived benefits, place attachment and future visit intentions (FVI) at nature-based recreation and tourism areas, utilizing importance and performance concepts. The desired benefits and perceived attained benefits of consumers were treated as an antecedent to place attachment and FVI in structural models. Results of two separate structural models tests using responses from 934 visitors at the Ocala National Forest in Florida, USA, confirmed that place attachment fully mediates the relationship between benefits desired and FVI, while place attachment partially mediates the relationship between benefits attained and FVI. The former verifies the significant role of place attachment, and the latter validates the importance of place attachment as well as recreation benefit attainment in predicting visitors’ FVI. These findings suggest that both benefits desired and benefits attained are important predictors of place attachment and behavioral intentions. Accordingly, tourism and recreation planners and managers need to provide visitors with recreation opportunities, which maximize visitors’ ability to attain recreation benefits, such as nature exploration, physical fitness and escape. These managerial initiatives would result in increasing visitors’ emotional attachments and intentions to revisit.     

中国自然保护地体系建设——红线管控、旅游发展与文化表征

建立以国家公园为主体的自然保护地体系,是贯彻习近平生态文明思想的重大举措,是党的十九大提出的重大改革任务。有效协调自然保护地保护与开发的功能定位是实现“生态保护、绿色发展、改善民生”三效合一目标的难点与重点。本文围绕如何有效发挥自然保护地生态系统服务功能这一问题框架,系统分析中国自然保护地在生态保护红线划定、旅游发展与文化要素表征3个方面存在的问题与障碍因素,通过政策梳理、学理辨析、国内外对比等研究方法提出以上三方面问题的破题策略。本文认为要建设与国际接轨、具有中国特色的自然保护地体系,需要运用“可接受的改变极限”思想开展红线划定与管控,因地制策、因时制宜、持续监测;需要加大游憩机会谱的研究及应用实践,实现生态保护与旅游发展相得益彰;需要重视自然保护地内文化景观的提炼识别及其表征、传播,重视国家公园文化认同意义表达。     

Tourism,Marketing and Sustainable Development in the English National Parks: The Role of National Park Authorities

This paper examines the work of the English National Park Authorities (NPAs) in relation to aspects of the development of sustainable tourism. The NPAs have implicitly sought to achieve sustainable tourism development since the parks were first designated, striving to balance the needs of visitors and the environment within the context of living, working landscapes. Studies have revealed, however, that some NPAs are not fully championing sustainable tourism development. The paper examines the NPA's use of marketing and marketing perspectives in encouraging sustainable tourism, exploring attitudes, roles and activities. A diverse, piecemeal and sometimes underinformed approach is revealed. The paper concludes with ways forward for English NPAs and for other protected area management organisations.     

Identifying spatial overlap in the values of locals,domestic- and international tourists to protected areas

Nature-based tourism is increasingly encouraged to support local socioeconomic development in and around protected areas, but managing protected areas for tourism could challenge existing park uses associated with self-organized outdoor recreation and local resource use. We used a web-based Public Participatory Geographic Information System (PPGIS) to identify the most important places and values of local, domestic, and international visitors to Jotunheimen National Park and Utladalen Protected Landscape in Norway. Scenic and recreation values were prioritized by all groups, but local users mapped more values relating to hunting, fishing, gathering and cultural identity. While the three user groups overlapped in some places, we found that they self-segregated to some extent. Our study affirms the importance of spatially explicit analyses to support protected area management. Understanding the spatial distribution of values held by different user groups can aid in designing tourism management strategies that minimize intergroup conflict.     

Nature-based tourism's impact on environmental knowledge,attitudes, and behavior: a review and analysis of the literature and potential future research

Although nature-based tourism is often promoted as benefiting local destinations through income generation, employment, and direct conservation support, it is also believed to influence tourists’ environmentally friendly attitudes, knowledge, and ultimately their behavior. Yet, few studies have empirically documented these outcomes, and those that do are inconsistent in the variables measured and the time frame analyzed. This paper examines the empirical research on nature-based tourism's ability to foster long-term stewardship behavior among travelers by conducting a systematic review of peer-reviewed tourism research published between 1995 and 2013. This search, focused on literature addressing changes in tourists’ environmentally related knowledge, attitudes, intentions, and actual behaviors, yielded just 30 empirical studies. Outcomes related to new environmental knowledge were commonly reported in these studies, but findings related to environmental attitudes and behaviors were inconsistent. Few studies measured environmental behavior directly, and fewer still include longitudinal assessments of persistent changes in attitudes or behaviors. We suggest potential future areas for research as well as programmatic strategies that may facilitate favorable outcomes from nature-based tourism, particularly those related to tourists’ knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors. Key areas include understanding visitors’ prior experiences and background, designing and delivering more effective interpretive messages, and using social media.