The role of corporates in creating sustainable Olympic legacies

Abstract

The Olympic Games is a major stimulus for increased tourism. In recent years, there have been greater calls for this and other mega-events to leave sustainable positive legacies for the host city, partly to offset the massive cost of hosting. To date, little consideration has been afforded to the role corporates might play in contributing to event legacies. This gap is compounded by the lack of research examining stakeholder engagement in legacy planning more generally. This paper adopts Holmes, Hughes, Mair and Carlsen’s (2015) sustainable event legacy timeline to conceptualise how corporates through the corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives of sponsorship and employee volunteering can engage across the Olympic event planning cycle to generate volunteering legacies. Drawing upon a comparative study of the Sydney 2000 and London 2012 Olympic Games, tentative evidence of corporate engagement was noted but for the most part it was fragmented and CSR initiatives primarily focused on the immediate planning and delivery stages of the event cycle. The paper advances new knowledge of how volunteering legacies can be generated through the best practice engagement of corporates as key stakeholders involved in legacy planning and governance across the Olympic planning cycle.     

Enacting Masculinities in a Contemporary Subcultural Sporting Event: A Gendered Critique

Sport participation and alcohol consumption have been widely examined in analyses of masculinity and implicated in perpetuating hegemonic masculinity in Western cultures. This article addresses a variant of the “Beer Mile,” a ritualistic event that has emerged as an ancillary to major triathlons in Australia. In this context, the Beer Mile is an unsanctioned event simultaneously fusing sport participation and alcohol consumption, intended as a jocular celebration of athletic achievement. This research utilises a case study research design employing multiple qualitative methods to critique gender-based discursive practices and online discourse surrounding the Beer Mile. Analysis revealed the Beer Mile as a masculine-dominated space reinforcing normative assumptions on gender binaries and hierarchies. Numerous constraints to women's participation and implicit endorsement of the sport-alcohol nexus were identified, which may undermine broader efforts in promoting the sport of triathlon through notions of egalitarianism, inclusiveness, and healthy lifestyles.     

Exploring the economic,social and cultural rights of youth leaders working in Sport for Development initiatives at grassroots level in South Africa

Abstract

Sport has not only been forwarded as a basic human right but it is a powerful tool in the advocacy of human rights. Social inclusion and gender equality through sport interventions are prevalent in the developing world. Change agents working in the field of Sport for Development applaud the success of interventions in marginalised and impoverished communities as sport is viewed as an effective tool that contributes to the social inclusion and the betterment of the poor. In a developing country, such as South Africa, unemployed youth are recruited as youth leaders in an attempt to improve their economic, social and cultural standing through their involvement in sport for development interventions. This Research Note highlights the tension between Sport for Development initiatives in South Africa that carry messages of human rights and the failure of the current system to fulfil the economic, social and cultural rights of youth leaders. This study explores the experiences of youth leaders in South Africa through the lens of ‘The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights’ (ICESCR). A qualitative, ethnographic approach was used to address the question: How can the socio-economic rights of youth leaders working on grassroots level in Sport for Development initiatives be recognised? The qualitative research findings indicated youth leaders perceive their work as important, but do not believe that the remuneration they receive allow for a decent living; and, that they do not believe that they have an equal opportunity for career progression within the Non-Government Organisations (NGOs) that they work for. Recommendations on how to address the rights of youth leaders are provided.     

The lived experience of London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games volunteers: a serious leisure perspective

Along with other sporting mega-events, the Olympic Games, in all its versions, makes extensive use of volunteers. The 70,000 London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic volunteers, for example, played a vital role in the delivery of the event. Stebbins’ theoretical perspective of serious leisure includes consideration of volunteering and there are calls for its further empirical evaluation. This study, therefore, uses a qualitative study of the lived experience of London 2012 volunteers to test the relevance of the serious leisure framework to Olympic volunteering. The data are drawn from the reflective diaries of 20 participants who volunteered in a variety of roles during London 2012. It is concluded that all of the qualities of serious leisure are identifiable to various extents within the experiences of the London 2012 volunteers. This finding will help Olympic and other sporting mega-event managers to understand and improve the experiences of their volunteers. Recommendations are also made, in the light of the findings, for the further refinement of the serious leisure perspective. Particular attention is paid to highlighting how the findings might contribute to recent debates around whether sporting mega-event volunteering is best explained by the serious leisure quality of career volunteering, or by the serious leisure associated concept of project-based leisure, or alternatively by the competing term of episodic volunteering.     

Three decades of tourism scholarship: Gender,collaboration and research methods

Despite ongoing problems with gender inequalities in tourism, little is known about gender differences in first and solo authorships, collaboration, and choice of research approaches. This study analyzes these academic practices using 4973 articles (11,033 authors) in three major tourism journals from 1990 to 2017. The results show evidence of gender homophilic collaboration behaviors. Gender heterogeneous co-authorships are becoming pervasive and seem to be driven by female first authors. Solo female researchers strongly associate with qualitative research. While male-only teams have the lowest likelihood of using qualitative research, the situation is more complex for gender heterogeneous teams. Practical suggestions derived from the findings for the gender equality agenda in tourism are discussed to promote more gender-diverse collaborations and female-led research.     

Running together: The social capitals of a tourism running event

This article discuss the types of social capital that are co-produced and consumed by a host of actors during a small-scale sport event called Etape Bornholm, a five-day tourism running event. We make a contribution to the literature on social capital in small-scale tourism sport events by developing the spatial dimensions of territoriality and mobility as a supplement to discussions of bridging and bonding. Through a qualitative investigation of local organisers, volunteers, runners, supporters and spectators, we show how four types of social capital are involved in making the event happen. The conclusion develops the metaphor of “running together” to conclude on the forms of social capital that are drawn upon and practised.     

Conceptualizing volunteering in tourism in China

The current literature on volunteering in tourism is very Western-centric, and volunteering in different cultural contexts needs to be further explored. This study is devoted to exploring the local understanding of tourism-related issues in China so as to give critical tourism by engaging local epistemology. Through a qualitative design, this research explores how volunteering is conceptualized in the context of tourism in China. Findings identify that the highlight of voluntary spirit, serving others by giving time/skills/knowledge and mutual help are three dimensions of conceptualization. It indicates that there are different meanings of volunteering in the Chinese context. This research takes a further step and reflects the applicability of the Western conceptualization of volunteering in the Chinese tourism context. This research presents a contribution to the epistemological decolonisation of tourism knowledge production in Chinese context.     

Questioning policy,youth participation and lifestyle sports

Young people have been identified as a key target group for whom participation in sport and physical activity could have important benefits to health and well-being and consequently have been the focus of several government policies to increase participation in the UK. Lifestyle sports represent one such strategy for encouraging and sustaining new engagements in sport and physical activity in youth groups, however, there is at present a lack of understanding of the use of these activities within policy contexts. This paper presents findings from a government initiative which sought to increase participation in sport for young people through provision of facilities for mountain biking in a forest in south-east England. Findings from qualitative research with 40 young people who participated in mountain biking at the case study location highlight the importance of non-traditional sports as a means to experience the natural environments through forms of consumption which are healthy, active and appeal to their identities. In addition, however, the paper raises questions over the accessibility of schemes for some individuals and social groups, and the ability to incorporate sports which are inherently participant-led into state-managed schemes. Lifestyle sports such as mountain biking involve distinct forms of participation which present a challenge for policy-makers who seek to create and maintain sustainable communities of youth participants.     

Sport event and destination co-branding: Analysis of social media sentiment in an international,professional sport event crisis

This study investigates the sentiment of social media user-generated content (UGC) when an international, professional sport event is cancelled due to a crisis. The purpose is to provide insight into the brand implications for both the sport event and the host destination. From a co-branding perspective this paper analyses the cancellation of the 2018 Margaret River Pro surfing event. Leximancer analysis of 5684 Twitter posts across three time periods (pre, during, post crisis) over a calendar year found that sentiment shifted, and negative sentiment was more closely aligned to the destination than the event. This exploratory study seeks to unpack some of the complexities of event and destination co-branding and crisis management, presenting implications for industry and academia. In doing so, the study contributes to the paucity of scholarly knowledge examining real-time social media users' response to a crisis in a sport event tourism context.     

A Motivation-Based Typology of Road Cyclists in the Cape Town Cycle Tour,South Africa

This research identified cyclists’ main motives for participating in the Cape Town Cycle Tour, and segmented them accordingly. Six distinct motives were identified (in order of importance): commitment and event affiliation, lifestyle, achievement and challenge, escape and socialization, international standing of event, and skill mastery and group affiliation. On the basis of these motives, two distinct national cycling segments and one international segment were identified: Regulars, Devotees, and Beginners. The findings confirm that event cyclists should not be regarded as homogeneous and that the type of sport and the nature of the event significantly influence the type of participant.     

Effect of Event Service Quality and Satisfaction on Happiness Among Runners of a Recurring Sport Event

The consumption of sport events through direct participation can influence participants’ perception of happiness with that experiential purchase given the time and resources invested in that experience. The purpose of the study was to examine how sport event service quality aspects operationalized through the physical environment, interaction, and outcome factors influence overall satisfaction with the event and experiential happiness. Data were collected from 300 runners who participated in 5k and 10k races. Structural equation modeling analysis revealed the positive effect of outcome and physical environment factors on satisfaction with the event and the positive influence of event satisfaction and outcome quality on experiential happiness. The overall expectations on the quality of the event experience can be a focus for event managers aiming to achieve social marketing goals related to positive psychology from the event participation.     

Assessing the contribution of a major cycle race to host communities in South Australia

The development of major sport events in rural areas offers opportunities for local communities to engage in leisure, sport and tourism activity. While current studies investigate the impact of sport events on residents individually, little research has taken a community perspective. The purpose of this research was to explore the process of event development and the impact upon social interactions in seven rural communities in the 2012 Tour Down Under cycling race in Australia. Using grounded theory to explore community activities, interviews and focus groups with over 100 participants resulted in the development of a core category of collaboration; and five subcategories to examine the role of the event in stimulating community interaction and social capital. A model of sport event development explains the impact of the event development process on community relations in this rural context. Implications are discussed for managing the relationships between communities and event management organisations.     

Research note sport tourism versus event tourism: Considerations on a necessary distinction and integration

Abstract

Interest in sport-related tourism increased perceptibly around the millennium, however, a comprehensive conceptual framework for a classification of sport (event) tourism is still missing. The predominant focus of sport tourism encompasses event-related touristic endeavors, such as mega sport events; however, an holistic approach to sport tourism suggests the need for further integration of other sub-areas such as nonevent-related components. This research note, therefore, provides a sport tourism perspective and a methodological approach to establishing the sport tourism cube as a necessary tool for the further distinction and integration of sport and event tourism. The research aim is, therefore, to build a foundation for further scientific research in sport tourism.     

Capacity of Mass Participant Sport Events for the Development of Activity Commitment and Future Exercise Intention

Mass participation sport events are often cited as increasing population-level physical activity, but empirical evidence is scarce as to their effectiveness. The current research examined the developmental role of these events in increasing positive attitudes toward physically active leisure by a) determining its motivational capacity and b) investigating how sport event participation contributes to activity commitment and future exercise intentions. A multiattribute survey was distributed on-line to participants of a running event held in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, (N = 2,791) three months after the event. Inferential statistics revealed that 10 motives directed participation across 75% of the population. Multivariate multiple linear regression analyses revealed event participation motives combined with event satisfaction and physical activity involvement explained 30% of running commitment and 31% of future exercise intentions. Most notably, the event promoted stronger attitudes toward regular exercise among participants who were more satisfied with their event experience, least active before the event, and had completed fewer prior organized events. This evidence demonstrates that mass participant sporting events can serve as important social and environmental correlates of physical activity.     

Event satisfaction,leisure involvement and life satisfaction at a walking event: the mediating role of life domain satisfaction

Given the rising popularity of mass-participant sport, such as walking and running events, research has started to address whether these types of events could promote life satisfaction for participants. Nevertheless, the theoretical link between event participation and life satisfaction has not been fully elaborated. Using bottom-up theory of life satisfaction, this study examined the role of event satisfaction and the three facets of leisure involvement – attraction, centrality and self-expression – in people’s life domain satisfaction and life satisfaction. Participants (N = 236) were recruited from a walking event held in western Japan. The results of the study revealed that event satisfaction had positive, indirect effects on life satisfaction through satisfaction with family life and personal achievement. Attraction in walking also had positive, indirect effects on life satisfaction through satisfaction with family life, personal achievement and social life. In contrast, centrality and self-expression in walking were not associated with satisfaction with any life domains and life satisfaction. Findings from this study highlight the importance of life domain satisfaction in the relationship between event satisfaction, leisure involvement and life satisfaction. These findings also suggest that walking events can promote life satisfaction by providing the enjoyment of walking as physically active leisure.     

Skateboarding beyond the limits of gender? Strategic interventions in Sweden

Sweden prides itself as a country where young women can enjoy gender equality. Yet many young women skateboarders still experience discomfort when skateboarding in public spaces. We argue that diverse strategies are required to intervene in the intransigent problem of gender inequality in the male-dominated sport of skateboarding. We discuss two intertwined strategies adopted in Swedish skateboarding contexts, strategic visibility and strategic entitlement. Strategic visibility is premised on making girls a special case, separated from the boys, and therefore highly visible. The other intervention goes beyond the limits of gender, aiming to achieve strategic entitlement, which takes-for-granted girls’ participation and competence. Drawing from ethnographic data, we explore the paradoxical spaces of these interventions, identifying the benefits and risks of each strategy. We conclude that both strategies are important, yet the latter breaks new ground. Strategic entitlement, which constructs skateboarding girls as ordinary and indistinguishable from boys, no longer constructs gender as a limiting factor. Interventions to promote gender equality should include strategies that seek to go beyond gender and strategies that acknowledge the significance of gender. We need to keep experimenting with and researching the unintended consequences of all strategies for challenging and changing male dominance in sport and leisure.     

An Olympic legacy for all? The non-infrastructural outcomes of the Olympic Games for socially excluded groups (Atlanta 1996-Beijing 2008)

The use of mega sporting events to achieve social goals for socially excluded groups is heavily contested. Comparative evidence regarding the effects of the Olympic Games for these groups is scarce, and there is an even greater dearth of studies focusing on non-infrastructural programmes (such as sport participation initiatives, volunteering opportunities, training and employment schemes). This study identifies planning principles that allow for the development of such non-infrastructural benefits for socially excluded groups in host cities, and reviews their application in recent Olympic Games.This study examines data from 7 Olympic cities (Atlanta, Nagano, Sydney, Salt Lake City, Athens, Turin and Beijing). It shows that the Olympic Games generally bring few benefits for socially excluded groups, although these benefits are often important justifications in the bidding stage. The study highlights the growing importance placed by the International Olympic Committee on environmental sustainability, and proposes a similar emphasis on social sustainability.     

Motivation and satisfaction of marathon volunteers: How important is volunteers' level of running experience?

Special events such as marathons frequently depend on volunteers who may have various motivations for volunteering. The purpose of this study is to examine the motivations of volunteers of marathons, differences in motivation by demographics, level of running experience, and relationships with satisfaction. The results reveal differences in the love of sport volunteer motivation by the level of running experience. In addition, the level of running experience variable, which is unique in volunteer motivation studies, moderates the relationships between motivations and satisfaction, suggesting events such as marathons could benefit from recruiting volunteers who themselves participate in the event activity.     

Modeling a Demonstration Effect: The Case of Spectators' Experiences at 2015 Pan Am Games' Track Cycling Competitions

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to identify cognitive and affective mechanisms by which the experience of live sport spectating might inspire new sport participation. A conceptual model of demonstration effects that explored relationships among cognitive dimensions of spectators' consumptive experiences (i.e., fantasy, flow, evaluation, aesthetics and physical attractiveness), an affective state of inspiration, and intention to try a sport on display was tested. Data were collected from spectators attending 2015 Pan Am Games track cycling competitions through a written questionnaire. Cognitive dimensions were all positively related to feelings of being inspired while watching the event. Feelings of being inspired while watching the event, in turn, had a positive effect on intention to try the sport of track cycling. An affective state of inspiration also mediated relationships between each cognitive dimension of sport event performance consumption and intention. Implications for research and practice are discussed.     

The influence of volunteer motivation on satisfaction,attitudes, and support for a mega-event

Although there are numerous studies on volunteering in tourism, little research has been done on volunteer support for mega-events. This study develops a theoretical model investigating the relationship between volunteer motivation and support for the Expo 2012 Yeosu Korea through mediating effects of satisfaction and attitudes toward volunteering and the Expo venue. An onsite survey of 489 volunteers at the Yeosu Expo was conducted. The structural equation model reveals that patriotism and intrinsic motivations significantly influence volunteer satisfaction, which in turn exerts a significant effect on attitudes toward volunteering and the Expo venue. Also, volunteer attitudes toward volunteering significantly influence volunteer attitudes toward the Expo venue, which in turn have a significant effect on support for the Expo. The study suggests that patriotism and intrinsic motivations can leverage support for mega-events through enhancing mediators of satisfaction and attitudes.