Entrepreneurial leadership and MNE subsidiary performance: The moderating role of subsidiary context

Managers of international subsidiaries, especially subsidiary CEOs, operate at critical interfaces within multinational enterprises (MNEs) and hold strategic responsibility for the operations in their country. Yet, their impact on subsidiary performance has received scant research attention. Building on the subsidiary entrepreneurship and strategic leadership literatures, we develop a model of how subsidiary CEOs’ entrepreneurial leadership affects subsidiary performance, and how this relationship is moderated by the subsidiary context that determines managerial discretion. We combine survey data of 291 international subsidiaries in South Korea with archival data to test our hypotheses. Our results show that subsidiary CEOs’ entrepreneurial leadership enhances subsidiary performance and that this relationship is strengthened by managerial discretion. Our study highlights the pivotal role of subsidiary CEOs within MNEs and contributes to a microfoundational understanding of international subsidiary management.     

Managers' corporate entrepreneurial actions: Examining perception and position

Are organizational factors that support entrepreneurial action supportive for all? We use the literatures on corporate entrepreneurship and managerial levels to propose that managers differ in structural ability to make the most of their organizational environment. Using a sample 458 managers and moderated Poisson regression analysis we found that the relationship between managers' perceptions of the organizational environment and the number of entrepreneurial ideas implemented varied across managers of different structural levels. Specifically, (1) the positive relationship between managerial support and entrepreneurial action is more positive for senior and middle level managers than it is for lower- (first) level managers, and (2) the positive relationship between work discretion and entrepreneurial action is more positive for senior and middle level managers than it is for first-level managers. These findings suggest that managerial level provides a structural ability to “make more of” organizational factors that support entrepreneurial action.     

Assessing Managerial Discretion across Different Industries in China

In this study, managerial discretion in 37 industries in China is measured and ranked into high, medium and low groups. The results are compared with findings from Hambrick and Abrhamson＇s （1995） study in the U.S. context, and changes are examined in two dimensions of managerial discretion from 2001 to 2009. This study contributes a reliable measure of managerial discretion for future organizational and strategic studies, which can help explain the differences in managerial phenomena across different industries in China＇s institutional environment.     

Does the sequencing of related and unrelated export diversification matter? Evidence from Colombian exporters

How does related or unrelated geographic diversification affect future related or unrelated product diversification of exporting firms, and vice-versa? This question addresses an unresolved debate, and it is important for firms in developing countries that seek to expand their product and geographical markets. Our study contributes to a current debate by highlighting the relevance of the temporal sequence and the relatedness of international diversification. Expanding the classic transaction costs and the resource-based explanations, we argue that organizational learning as well as organizational and sales (in-)efficiencies (notably through resource and product cannibalization, negative transfer and coordination costs) affect the interrelationships between product and geographic diversification. Using a panel dataset of over 14,000 firm-year observations from exporters based in Colombia, we find that (1) related geographic diversification tends to increase future product diversification; (2) related product diversification tends to decrease future geographic diversification; and (3) unrelated product diversification tends to increase future geographic diversification.     

Regional integration and the international strategies of large European firms

From the perspective of regional economic integration we decompose international strategy into regional integration strategy and three types of global strategy (global sales, global production, and pure global integration). Using 1100 firm-year observations we find that 60% of the largest European firms pursue a regional integration strategy. We also find that global strategies vary. We examine the firm specific factors that affect global strategies. In general, R&D capability determines a global production strategy, whereas firm size and managerial capability determine both a global sales strategy and a pure global integration strategy.     

The impact of geographic diversification on export performance of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs)

Two alternative diversification strategies—the geographic diversification of export sales and key market concentration—are extensively discussed in management, strategy, entrepreneurship, and economics literature. However, no conclusive evidence currently exists as to how either of these strategies affects the performance of international sales. This paper contributes to a better understanding of geographic diversification as a key dimension of the internationalization process for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). In it, we analyze a comprehensive database of Polish exporters over a 3-year period to better understand the geographic diversification patterns of exporters. Based on this analysis, six propositions emerged from the export patterns examined and two viable strategies for exporting SMEs are identified: (1) concentrating on a single market and (2) a balanced approach aimed at targeting a small number of key markets, combined with a strategy of penetrating other markets. Implications for practice and future research are also discussed herein.     

Market and Product Diversification: The Evidence From Retailing

This study explored the number of international regions in which retailers operate, the assortment of product categories they offer their customers, and the effects of these market and product category diversification strategies on retail sales volumes. The analysis used sales data about 246 global large-scale retail stores from diverse industries and countries of origin. We found that both strategies have positive effects on retail sales volumes. The two strategies interact such that the positive effect of market expansion on retail sales volumes is larger for retailers who also follow a strategy of greater product category diversity.     

The employee-organization relationship, organizational citizenship behaviors, and superior service quality

This study proposes a model of customer-contact service employee management that examines organizational citizenship behaviors as critical links between aspects of the employee-organization relationship (perceived organizational support, organizational identification) and customers’ perceptions of service quality. In addition, it investigates the role of job autonomy in providing the necessary behavioral discretion for employees to be able to perform citizenship behaviors. The hypothesized model was partially supported. Theoretical and managerial implications are explored.     

International strategy and subsidiary performance in China

This study examines the underlying relationship between type of international strategy (global, multidomestic, and transnational) and subsidiary performance in the context of the People's Republic of China. After controlling for cultural, size, and equity effects, it is found that strategy type is important for the overall performance of international expansion. Different strategies affect multinational enterprise (MNE) subunits' performance differently. While global strategy is systematically related to low risk but suffers from loss of growth opportunities in an emerging market, multidomestic strategy is positively associated with local market expansion but comes at the expense of high uncertainty. Overall, transnational strategy outperforms other postures in aligning with a dynamic emerging market and attaining benefits from both ownership-specific and country-specific advantages. Transnational strategy increases operating flexibility which in turn spurs managerial discretion to respond profitably to the business potential of the global marketplace. © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Global marketing strategy modeling of high tech products

This study considers the role of global marketing strategy and its relation to market orientation, international experience, and performance in the high tech products context. Knowledge of this important domain of global marketing strategy and performance remains limited. In this respect, the study raises a number of important questions concerning how market orientation, international experience and global marketing strategy impact performance. The study empirically tests predictions of relationships by using mail survey data from 172 business units of high tech firms. Findings from the research sample support the argument that market orientation, international experience, and global marketing strategy are the key antecedents of organizational performance. Market orientation and international experience influence global marketing. The article concludes with theoretical and managerial implications of the research findings.     

Two Sides of a Coin: Endogenous and Exogenous Effects of Corporate Diversification on Firm Value

We investigate the value effects of two types of corporate diversification – unexpected exogenous diversification and endogenous diversification. Combining Heckman's sample‐selection estimator with a two‐stage least squares estimator and a generalized method of moments instrumental variables estimator to control for both endogeneity and sample‐selection bias, we find that while an unexpected increase in diversification caused by exogenous shocks destroys firm value, an endogenous increase in diversification due to managerial decisions will enhance firm value, indicating a diversification premium from altering organizational structures.     

基于多元化战略的集团公司销售协同探讨

本文认为,多元化战略是很多大型集团公司采用的经营方式,也是实现协同效应的重要方式,同时协同效应是实施多元化战略的重要动因。销售协同的关联存在于销售活动价值链的各个环节,且相关多元化公司更容易找到这种关联。不同协同方式各有特点及适用条件,公司应考虑其产品类型、经营区域、目标客户及公司战略等因素来选择恰当的方式。文章提出,在实现销售协同的过程中应注意以下问题:不同协同方式如品牌延伸、人员共享与跨部门使用、销售基础设施共享、共享物流、建立销售子公司等有各自的优劣势和适用条件。在实施销售协同过程中应该注意由高层推动与设定共同战略目标,创造良好的环境氛围,选择恰当的协同方式,建立有效的评价激励制度等方面的问题。     

Linking knowledge, entry timing and internationalization strategy

This paper contributes to the current internationalization theory by linking the characteristics of the firm's resource-base, its market-entry timing orientation and international growth orientation so as to shed more light on internationalization strategies. By employing multi-industry data, we find that the nature of the firm's knowledge, its entry timing orientation and international growth orientation are related to its internationalization strategy. Among other results, we find that the firm's accumulated expertise is positively related for both the international growth orientation and entry timing orientation. The international growth orientation, in turn, is related both to the path type of internationalization the firm employs as well as the geographical diversification in market entry. In other words, the results suggest that the firm's resource-base influences on both its entry timing orientation and to the internationalization strategy. These and other findings are discussed with regard to their scholarly and managerial implications.     

Business group affiliation and SMEs’ international sales intensity and diversification: A multi-country study

This study examines the impact of business group (BG) affiliation on international sales intensity and diversification in small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) by using a multi-country sample of over 13,000 SMEs from 34 European countries. Drawing on the revised Uppsala internationalization model and network theory, this paper suggests that the effects of BG affiliation on international sales intensity and diversification depend on the geographical dispersion of the BG network ties, the size and the age of the firm, and the institutional support in the home country. Thus, we find that interfirm networks in the form of BGs are a double-edged sword that can have both favorable and unfavorable consequences for international sales, depending on the geographical dispersion of the BG’s ties. In addition, the results reveal that BG affiliation is more beneficial for smaller SMEs and SMEs in countries with lower institutional support that are more dependent on the network resources embedded within BG networks.     

The fit of home to foreign market environment: An exploratory study of the relationship of congruence to performance

This research draws on the foreign market entry and organizational strategy literatures to address the relationship between home and foreign market environmental congruence and overseas venture performance. Theoretical arguments from prior studies have been juxtaposed in that transaction cost and diversification perspectives hypothesize different outcomes of firm entry into heterogeneous or homogeneous market environments. Using polynomial regression we test hypotheses regarding the home and overseas environmental congruence–venture performance relationship, and the organizational factors which act as moderators of this relationship. The results show that traditional transaction cost and market replication theories fail to fully explain the value of environmental fit when matching overseas market with domestic market profiles. Furthermore, the findings reveal that the moderating effects of organizational factors on the market congruence–venture performance relationship are also counter-intuitive to traditional perspectives. Managerial implications, study limitations, and directions for future research are offered.     

Job allocations as cultural sorting in a culturally diverse organizational context

This study addresses the inadequacy of the career and diversity literatures in explaining the dynamics of job allocations in a culturally diverse organizational context. In order to better understand this topic, we conducted a qualitative study involving personal interviews with 50 Emiratis and international employees who worked in managerial positions in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). The purpose of the study was to explore the unique challenges associated with managing a culturally diverse workforce and explore the role of culture in allocating jobs among employees with diverse cultural backgrounds. Despite the perceived value of having a culturally diverse workforce, our findings indicate a lack of effective diversity management strategies for dealing with challenges and issues associated with a high level of cultural diversity in the participating organizations. This study provides insights into the impact of cultural/nationality-based stereotypes on job allocations as well as on organizational outcomes. Based on the findings, we discussed implications for research and practice and as well as for policy makers.     

Strategic Commitment and Timing of Internationalization from Emerging Markets: Evidence from China,India, Mexico,and South Africa

In a study of 257 new ventures from China, India, Mexico, and South Africa, we find support for the mediating effect of strategic early internationalization on international sales intensity. We argued that when new ventures from emerging markets internationalize early and with commitment, the legitimacy they acquire helps them overcome liabilities of newness and foreignness. We develop a typology of international new ventures that, based on strategic intent and timing of internationalization, distinguishes strategic early internationalizers from persistent, serendipitous, and long‐term internationalizers. We show that strategic early internationalization accounts for over half of the explained variance in international sales intensity and either fully or partially mediates the effects of managerial knowledge and market orientation on international sales intensity.     

International diversification of the emerging-market enterprises: A multi-level examination

This study develops a cross-level research model based on insights from the capabilities view and institutional theory. We examine the drivers of international diversification for firms from emerging economies, specifically how top managers’ prior experiences and a favorable institutional environment for human capital affects the international diversification of emerging-market enterprises (EMEs). This research demonstrates that firm- and country-level factors collectively influence the international diversification of EMEs. We find that an EME whose top managers have global managerial and technological experiences is more likely to venture into international markets when a favorable institutional environment provides globally competitive, highly skilled human capital. This study demonstrates that for a multidimensional phenomenon such as EMEs’ international diversification, a more complete picture emerges given a theoretical framework that builds on diverse perspectives which are empirically tested across levels.     

Experiential drivers of foreign direct investment by late-comer Asian firms: The Chinese evidence

Focusing on the cognitive process of managerial decision making, we argue that both organizational and personal international experiences contribute to managerial knowledge structure which in turn influences firms' foreign direct investment decisions. Given the decision task context of late-comer Asian firms, the two types of experiences can lead to decision outcomes that compete for limited decision making resources, and therefore their interaction effect is expected to be negative. Based on a sample of 164 Chinese electronic manufacturing firms over an eight-year period (2001–2008), we found substantial support for our hypotheses. While both organizational and personal international experiences increase the foreign direct investment propensity of a firm, these experiences also weaken each other's effects.     

企业国际多元化：一个文献综述

从资源配置的角度看,企业战略包括两个基本方面：行业多元化和国际多元化。与行业多元化相比,对国际多元化的关注较少。理论分析表明,国际多元化既有成本,也有收益。通过总结国外关于国际多元化的最新研究发现,目前关于国际多元化与企业绩效关系的实证研究结论并不一致,这些经验研究主要是基于发达国家企业的样本,并且这些研究本身也存在许多问题。利用新兴市场经济国家的样本可能会得出不同的结论。