The Role of Managerial Stock Option Programs in Governance: Evidence from REIT Stock Repurchases

This article examines the role of stock option programs and executive holdings of stock options in real estate investment trust (REIT) governance. We study the issue by analyzing how the market reaction to a stock repurchase announcement varies as a function of the individual REIT's governance structure. In particular, we examine how executive and employee stock option holdings influence the market reaction to a firm's announcement of a stock repurchase. Using a sample of REIT repurchase announcements, we find that the market reacts more favorably to announcements by firms where executives have larger option holdings and the chief executive officer is not entrenched. Our results with respect to the roles of stock option holdings of executives and nonexecutives differ from those reported for a cross-section of non-REIT firms. While we find evidence supporting the importance of executive stock options in aligning the incentives of management and reinforcing the positive signaling associated with a repurchase announcement, we find little evidence that the market views REIT repurchases as being used primarily to fund option exercise. We attribute these findings to greater dependence by REIT investors on internal governance mechanisms (such as stock option programs) as a result of regulatory restrictions that limit external monitoring such as hostile takeovers.     

Multimarket Contact and Rivalry over Knowledge‐based Resources

Research summary: Research shows that multimarket contact (MMC ) reduces rivalry involving downstream activities. Yet, studies showing that MMC can increase the threat of imitation suggest a need to better understand how MMC affects upstream rivalry over knowledge‐based resources. In this study, we argue that MMC increases rivalry over knowledge‐based resources since the deterrent threat of retaliation that typically leads to mutual forbearance in downstream activities will not be sufficient to restrain firms from protecting their knowledge from imitation in upstream activities. In support of these arguments we find that MMC increases the likelihood that a firm initiates patent litigation against a rival. This study suggests the relationship between MMC and rivalry may depend on the competitive domain and the type of resources over which firms are competing . Managerial Summary: How does market overlap or MMC affect rivalry between two competitors? Prior studies have largely found that an increase in market overlap decreases rivalry in less knowledge‐intensive context because of the deterrent threat of retaliation. However, in this paper, we argue that an increase in market overlap may not reduce rivalry in more knowledge‐intensive context because of heterogeneity in capabilities to protect knowledge. We find that a firm is more likely to initiate patent litigation against a rival as market overlap increases. Our findings suggest that the incentive to protect value across multiple product markets may surpass the motivation to cooperate with rivals and that managers should have a more nuanced view of how market overlap with competitors affects rivalry in more knowledge‐intensive contexts . Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Are joint ventures positive sum games? The relative effects of cooperative and noncooperative behavior

Are joint ventures (JVs) characterized mainly by cooperative behavior or noncooperative behavior? In this research, we address this question by examining the interrelationship between the values created for two partners when they announce a JV. We argue that, on average, if cooperative behavior and common benefits are more influential than noncooperative behavior and private benefits, there will be a positive association between the values created for the two partners. Conversely, if private benefits and noncooperative behavior are more influential, there will be a negative association as partners derive value at the expense of each other rather than by creating new opportunities through the JV. Using a sample of 344 JVs we find evidence of a positive association between the values created for the two partners after controlling for various factors. This suggests that the stock market perceives JVs to be positive sum games rather than zero sum games, and that value creation in JVs is mainly attributable to synergies rather than appropriation of resources. Our analysis also reveals other conditions under which cooperative behavior and noncooperative behavior become dominant, such as the strength of the resources of the two partners, product market competition, and JV experience. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Price Signaling and Return Chasing: International Evidence from Maturing REIT Markets

This article examines the liquidity of international real estate securities across 10 markets over the period 1990–2015. We apply and compare results for four different measures of liquidity, and find that while liquidity has increased consistently, wide variations still exist across markets, with the United States and Japan in the lead. Our results also suggest that the introduction of local REIT regimes did not have any pervasive effects on stock liquidity. When we study the relationship between liquidity and returns, we document new and consistent evidence for international return chasing behavior, whose pattern is a function of local market efficiency, listed real estate market maturity and stock ownership dispersion. The introduction of REIT regimes seems to weaken the importance of extra performance over and above general equity returns as investors tend to allocate funds to real estate securities within real estate rather than equity portfolios.     

中国股市周期与经济周期的动态关联研究

本文运用动态条件相关估计方法(DCC)来考察中国股市周期与真实经济周期以及金融经济周期的动态关系。研究发现,在样本期间内(1996年1月~2010年12月),股市周期与金融经济周期以及真实经济周期的动态相关关系基本上为正相关关系,可见我国股票市场的周期波动很大程度上受到真实经济周期波动与金融经济周期波动的共同影响。与真实经济周期相比较而言,金融经济周期与股市周期的动态关联程度更高,而且在不同的牛熊市阶段,股市周期与真实经济周期以及金融经济周期的动态关联也各不相同,体现了不同牛熊市阶段的运行特征。总体来看,股市周期与真实经济周期以及金融经济周期之间的动态关联在不断加强。虽然股市周期与真实经济周期以及金融经济周期的运行并不会完全同步,但是反映真实经济周期指标与金融经济周期指标的重要高低点是判断股市周期运行顶底的一个重要参考依据。     

The impact of introducing seven-day-trading on the Austrian electricity market

This paper analyses the impacts of the new daily green electricity production forecasting policy by the Austrian Green Electricity Settlement Agency (OEMAG) and the newly introduced seven-day electricity trading mechanism by the European Energy Exchange (EEX) on the Austrian electricity market. By treating these two market policy alterations as natural experiments and applying statistical and econometric methods to a unique data set, it is investigated whether thereby (i) a reduction of the green electricity production forecasting uncertainties and (ii) a generally more efficient electricity market with accompanying lower net costs is attained. Furthermore, we analyse whether (iii) seven-day-trading helps to mitigate the Friday-Monday effect that is often observed on stock and other exchanges markets. Finally, we investigate whether or not (iv) the underlying market design might tempt OEMAG to systematically overstate its forecasts on green power generation.     

On Storage Behavior Under Imperfect Competition,with Application to the American Cheese Market

This paper investigates the economic implications of storage behavior under imperfect competition. It evaluates the economic dynamics implied by a storage firm under alternative market structures. This includes perfect competition as well as imperfect competition under Cournot behavior. The conceptual analysis is used to specify and estimate a model of storage behavior, with an econometric application to the U.S. American cheese market. The empirical results provide statistical evidence of non-competitive storage behavior. They show how the exercise of market power can contribute to reduced stock fluctuations and increased price instability in the U.S. cheese market.      

股票场外交易市场的制度构建应遵循五项原则

《首次公开发行股票并在创业板上市管理暂行办浩》的出台,意味着我国股票场内多层次交易市场的制度体系构建基本完成。然而,在我国股票场内交易市场的发展取得了巨大成就的同时,场外交易市场的发展却没有实质性进展,因而,在后创业板时代,应当构建股票场外交易市场制度体系以推动其迅速发展。文章认为,股票场外交易市场制度应当遵循法律定位的差异化、上柜企业的平民化、投资者的机构化、交易方式的创新化、监管制度的高效化这五项原则。     

收益率差异视角下股票流动性与资本结构关系的再检验

本文在股票收益率差异视角下,选择2000年1月到2015年12月期间中国沪、深市场307家上市公司数据,采用单方程估计法和联立方程组系统估计法研究我国上市公司股票流动性与资本结构的相互影响;并分别从股权分置改革、股权再融资、牛熊市行情三个方面对二者关系的变化与差异进行深入分析。结果表明：股票流动性与资本结构之间存在显著的负向关系,并且随着股票收益率水平的提高,负向影响越来越明显;股权分置改革后、满足再融资资格的上市公司以及牛市行情下两者的相互影响更显著。     

Before and after the technology sector crash: the effect of environmental munificence on stock market response to alliances of e‐commerce firms

We treat the sudden technology sector crash as a natural experiment to investigate how dramatic changes in resource availability in the e‐commerce sector affect stock market response to interfirm alliances. This environmental jolt demarcated two distinctly different periods of e‐commerce resource munificence: pre‐crash, characterized by high munificence, and post‐crash, characterized by low munificence. Using data on alliances involving 75 e‐commerce firms from 1995 to 2001, we find that the stock market responds more favorably to alliances during the less munificent period. Further, stock market response to alliance partner and type is also affected by the change in environmental munificence between the two periods. Our findings demonstrate the importance of environmental conditions and how these affect stock market interpretation of signals inherent in alliance announcements. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

西部地区成品油合理库存探讨

针对西部地区成品油库存管理,在保障市场稳定供应的前提下,为提升成品油库周转效率,降低库存成本占用及库存油品跌价风险,本文按照油库类型、运输方式、订货周期分类,利用不确定性库存管理模型,有效测算西部地区零售(省区公司)、批发企业(大区公司)油库的合理库存;同时考虑西部地区固有的季节性产销因素,按照成品油库存淡储旺销调剂模式,确定包含季节因素的西部地区整体合理库存.测算结果与实际情况符合较好,可以有效指导销售企业进行实际库存管理.此外,文章还对西部地区合理库存测算的影响因素进行了分析,指出了改进的方向.     

The impact of earnings expectations on corporate downsizing

Research Summary: We propose that due to financial market pressures, managers are forward‐looking in their search and decision processes and focus on meeting performance targets set by the financial community. Using panel data on S&P 100 companies, we find that pressure felt by management to meet the analyst consensus earnings estimate influences the extent of corporate downsizing. Moreover, our results show that high levels of institutional investor stock ownership and CEO power attenuate managers’ sensitivity to financial market pressures, while high levels of analyst coverage increase their sensitivity. Managerial Summary: In this study we examine how financial market pressures influence managers’ downsizing decisions. We argue that investment analysts’ earnings estimates represent important performance targets to which managers aspire. If firms fail to meet analysts’ expectations, the stock price will suffer. This study shows that managers utilize corporate downsizing to address the potential shortfall between a firm's future performance and the analyst consensus earnings estimate. In addition, we find that managers’ concerns over meeting analysts’ earnings estimates are influenced by various contextual factors such as institutional investor stock ownership, CEO power, and high levels of analyst coverage.     

Instruments of adjustment in recession: The case of R and D personnel

This paper examines the implications for the management of the stock of labour under recession conditions. First a labour market model which contrasts that model with a 'normal' commodity market is developed. A central feature of a labour market model is that it is characterised by wage fix-employment flex policies due in no small part to the 'peculiarities' of the commodity labour. Secondly, we examine how following falls in revenues, wages and employment are brought back into alignment with product market conditions. We find that policies on the management of labour under these conditions are product market driven but with attention being paid to both objective business variables, such as markets, products, revenues, labour costs and productivity and more subjective elements such as the firm's 'reputation' as a 'good' employer. These two possibly conflicting elements are reconciled by policies using 'instruments of adjustment' to reduce and restructure the labour stock while holding wage levels relatively fixed.     

IPO首日超额收益：基于抑价和溢价的研究综述

从一级市场抑价和二级市场溢价两个角度对IPO首日超额收益的相关研究进行了综述,并为我国IPO首日超额收益提供了新的解释。基于信息不对称,一级市场抑价解释认为IPO首日超额收益是发行抑价的结果,是对投资者面临的风险或者提供私有信息的补偿;在对称信息下,抑价是股权选择的一种均衡机制,也是发行人和投资者行为偏差的影响结果;基于行为金融,二级市场溢价解释认为噪声交易者的存在使IPO上市首日交易价格偏离了内在价值,产生了二级市场溢价。     

Engagement-driven institutionalization in market shaping: Synchronizing and stabilizing collective engagement

Although recent literature on market shaping highlights the importance of actors' engagement dispositions and behaviors and their interplay with institutional work, little is understood about the mechanisms that facilitate the institutionalization of engagement dispositions and behaviors within the market-shaping process. Beyond this backdrop, this conceptual paper addresses how the engagement of multiple actors contributes to institutional change within market shaping. To answer this question, our paper considers the concept of synchronization as a mechanism that facilitates the alignment of multiple actors' engagement dispositions and behaviors to generate collective engagement within institutional work. Applying the emerging theory of Practice-driven Institutionalism as well as the concept of collective engagement, we develop a process model of engagement-driven institutionalization that consists of three stages: (1) the synchronization of collective dispositions and behaviors, (2) the development of temporal stability of these behaviors through self-reinforcing mechanisms resulting in practices, and (3) the ensuing institutional change for market shaping. By connecting this model to the market-shaping process, we demonstrate how our model contributes to a better understanding of the theoretically fuzzy processes of institutional change within market shaping and how it may help market shapers in their endeavors to shape markets successfully.     

Complex adaptive system mechanisms,adaptive management practices,and firm product innovativeness

As a fascinating concept, the mechanisms of complex adaptive system (CAS) attracted many researchers from a variety of disciplines. Nevertheless, how the mechanism‐related variables, such as strategic resonance, accreting nodes, pattern forming, and catalytic behavior of organization, impact the firm product innovativeness is rarely addressed empirically in the new product development (NPD) literature. Also, there exist limited studies on the antecedents of the mechanisms of CAS in the NPD literature. In this respect, we identified and operationalized the adaptive management practices, which involve bonding, nonlinear, and attractor behaviors of management, as antecedents of mechanisms and firm product innovativeness. By studying 235 firms, we found that (1) strategic resonance and accreting nodes are positively related to firm product innovativeness, (2) bonding, nonlinear, and attractor behaviors of management positively influence the mechanism variables, and (3) market and technology turbulence impact the adaptive management practices. We also found that mechanisms of CAS partially mediate the relationship between adaptive management practices and firm product innovativeness.     

Corporate sexual equality and firm performance

Research summary: Previous studies have mixed findings on the relation between corporate socially responsible policies and firm performance. This paper focuses on a specific type of corporate social responsibility—corporate sexual equality, measuring how a firm treats its lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) employees, consumers, and investors—and examines whether and how it relates to firm performance. Using a longitudinal dataset of public firms in the U.S. during the period of 2002–2006, we demonstrate that firms with a higher degree of corporate sexual equality have higher stock returns and higher market valuation. We also identify one of the mediating channels, the labor market channel, that brings higher productivity to firms that embrace sexual equality. Managerial summary: Corporate sexual equality measures how a company treats its lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) employees, consumers, and investors. It is an important dimension of corporate social responsibility policies and diversity management. Using a longitudinal dataset of public firms in the U.S. during the period of 2002–2006, we demonstrate that firms with a higher degree of corporate sexual equality have higher stock returns, higher market valuation, and higher labor productivity. Our findings suggest that discriminatory hiring behaviors based on sexual orientation hurt employers and shareholders financially and that implementing corporate sexual equality policies can enhance firms' financial performance, generating competitive advantages in labor markets and mutual benefits between employers and employees. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Identification of Lead Users for Consumer Products via Virtual Stock Markets*

Newly launched products in the consumer goods and services markets show high failure rates. To reduce the failure rates, companies can integrate innovative and knowledgeable customers, the so‐called lead users, into the new product development process. However, the detection of such lead users is difficult, especially in consumer product markets with very large customer bases. A new and potentially valuable approach toward the identification of lead users involves the use of virtual stock markets, which have been proposed and applied for political and business forecasting but not for the identification of experts such as lead users. The basic concept of virtual stock markets is bringing a group of participants together via the Internet and allowing them to trade shares of virtual stocks. These stocks represent a bet on the outcome of future market situations, and their value depends on the realization of these market situations. In this process, a virtual stock market elicits and aggregates the assessments of its participants concerning future market developments. Virtual stock markets might also serve as a feasible instrument to filter out lead users, primarily for the following two reasons. First, a self‐selection effect might occur because sophisticated consumers with a higher involvement in the product of interest decide to participate in virtual stock markets. Second, a performance effect is likely to arise because well‐performing participants in virtual stock markets show a better understanding of the market than their (already self‐selected) fellow participants. So far, only limited information exists about these two effects and their relation to lead user characteristics. The goal of this paper is to analyze the feasibility of virtual stock markets for the identification of lead users. The results of this empirical study show that virtual stock markets can be an effective instrument to identify lead users in consumer products markets. Furthermore, the results show that not all lead users perform well in virtual stock markets. Hence, virtual stock markets allow identifying lead users with superior abilities to forecast market success.     

The Determinants of Stock Option Compensation: Evidence from Finland

A new, long, and rich panel data set consisting of all Finnish publicly traded firms is used to study how firm characteristics and stock market developments influence the adoption and targeting of stock option compensation. Stock option adoption is found to be a procyclical phenomenon. Findings from firm‐level econometric analysis often corroborate those based on U.S. data, but important differences also emerge. Findings include: (i) firms with higher market value per employee are more likely to use stock option compensation; (ii) share returns from the past year affect the adoption of targeted stock options, but not broad‐based plans; (iii) our results are consistent with the hypothesis that selective and broad‐based plans arise as solutions to differing monitoring difficulties. Broad‐based schemes are observed when production is human capital‐intensive and employee performance is hard to monitor, while selective schemes are adopted when ownership is dispersed and therefore owners may have weak incentives to monitor management.     

High‐Reputation Firms and Their Differential Acquisition Behaviors

Research summary: E merging reputation research suggests that high‐reputation firms will act to maintain their reputations in the face of high expectations. Yet, this research remains unclear on how high‐reputation firms do so. We advance this research by exploring three questions related to high‐reputation firms' differential acquisition behaviors: Do high‐reputation firms make more acquisitions than similar firms without this distinction? What kind of acquisitions do they make? How do investors react to high‐reputation firms' differential acquisition behaviors? We find that high‐reputation firms make more acquisitions and more unrelated acquisitions than other firms. Yet, we also find that investors bid down high‐reputation firms' stock more than other firms' in response to acquisition announcements, suggesting that investors are skeptical of how high‐reputation firms maintain their reputations . Managerial summary: W e know that high‐reputation firms wish to maintain their elite standing in the face of high‐market expectations, but we know little about how they do so. We explore this puzzle by investigating how reputation maintenance influences high‐reputation firms' acquisition behaviors. We classify high‐reputation firms are those firms that make Fortune's M ost A dmired annual list, and we find that high‐reputation firms make more acquisitions and more unrelated ones than other firms. Surprisingly, we also find that the market tends to react negatively to these acquisitions. Thus, managers may want to reconsider their strategy of making acquisitions as a means to maintain their firms' high reputations . Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.