工业化与英国妇女发展的再研究

19世纪40年代英国工业革命基本完成,这一进程给英国妇女的发展带来了机遇与挑战。工业化为英国妇女提供了投身社会化生产的环境,为妇女解放提供了前提,为女权运动的开展提供了良好的基础。但是,妇女就业的边缘化低层化,工作稳定性差,工作强度大报酬偏低等,都是妇女获得经济独立时付出的代价。     

An economic analysis of family size decision making with reference to the developing areas of South Africa

A neoclassical utility framework is used to analyze links between decisions about family size and socioeconomic variables using data for 175 women in KwaZulu, South Africa. The demand curve for children is specified within a simultaneous model of family decision-making. "Child education, women's opportunity cost of time and formal market participation were negatively related to fertility, reflecting substitution from numbers of children (time intensive) to fewer, more educated children (less time intensive) as opportunity costs rise. Child labour was positively related to fertility. Strategies to reduce population growth rates should therefore include improvements in women's education and employment opportunities to raise their time costs, and time-saving devices to reduce demand for child labour."     

数字经济背景下对中国新就业形态的现状分析及发展建议

新就业形态作为在数字经济背景下衍生出的一种新经济业态，凭借其智能性、灵活性在经济体系中飞速发展。在数字经济推动下的新就业岗位促进了劳动者素质水平改善、就业资源配置效率提高、男女就业不平等性降低，但同样也造成了对传统产业的冲击、劳动力结构不平衡、新就业者劳动权益保障不足等问题。因此，国家应该持续完善新就业形态相关法律和监管机制，努力提高全体劳动者数字化素质，协助传统产业进行数字化升级。     

Trends,Countertrends, and Gaps in Women's Employment

The factors driving global integration, namely, trade expansion, technological change, and the internationalization of production have altered production patterns and changed the composition of output in both developed and developing countries. As global patterns and modes of production have changed there has been a general shift away from agriculture toward industry and services. Along with these output changes have come significant changes in regional and national employment. In developing and developed countries, these changes span divergent trends. On the one hand, there is the increased availability of more and better quality employment as workers shift out of agriculture and subsistence production and into waged employment in the expanding manufacturing and service sectors. On the other hand, there have been sectors where the trend has been away from formalization toward the informalization and semi-formalization of production activities and employment practices. Women have generally benefited from improvements in the world economy. This article demonstrates, however, that patterns of employment and income generation among women often diverge, however, from global trends in important ways that suggest that the forces shaping global integration effect women differently. The article frames a policy discussion that the International Center for Research on Women led to debate the implications of recent trends in women's employment in the developing and developed world. The six articles in this section represent this discussion. They span a range of empirical and theoretical inquiry, exploring global employment trends and highlighting changes in women's participation in formal and informal economic activities.     

Designing Agricultural Technology for African Women Farmers: Lessons from 25 Years of Experience

African women farmers are less likely than men to adopt improved crop varieties and management systems. This paper addresses two issues: How does gender affect technology adoption among African farmers? How does the introduction of new technologies affect women's well-being? Three conclusions come out of an extensive and critical review of the literature. First, African households are complex and heterogeneous. Second, gender roles within African households and communities cannot be simply summarized. Third, gender roles and responsibilities are dynamic; they respond to changing economic circumstances. The paper demonstrates the complexity and importance of efforts to design interventions for African women.     

Gentlewomanly capitalism? Spinsters,widows, and wealth holding in England and Wales,c. 1800–1860

This article examines the demographic and geographical importance of wealthy middle-class women. It argues that in certain towns and cities, notably London, such women were of sufficient importance to merit attention in their own right. Drawing upon a sample of wills, it describes the types of wealth owned by these women. By examining women's investment in government securities, it argues that women's wealth was of crucial importance to the British state. Its findings challenge conventional understandings of the relationships between gender ideology, wealth holding, and economic development.     

日本妇女社会经济地位的分析

文章通过大量的数据收集,对日本妇女就业概况、劳动条件和再就业现状做了分析,在对处于复杂社会状况的日本妇女进行深刻了解的同时,力图找出其男女间的合理的社会分工和社会作用的不同之处,为今后我国在制定妇女就业,和劳动社会保障法规等一系列行政政策方面起到参考作用.     

生育政策、子女数量与中国的性别教育平等

近年来,中国性别教育差距快速缩小并呈现出女性高等教育在校生比重超越男性的现象,文章从生育政策视角对这一现象进行了解释,认为计划生育政策通过改善女性教育获得显著促进了性别教育平等。队列分析显示,生育政策之后的出生队列中女性相对教育水平明显提高,性别教育差距明显缩小。基于生育政策地区差异和出生队列差异构建的双差分模型分析发现,以农村二孩政策地区为参照组,严格的独生子女政策在提高女性相对受教育机会方面更为明显。但相对于二孩政策,一孩半政策在促进性别教育平等方面不存在显著差异,这可能由于在一孩半政策下独女户和双女户数量较少,家庭受性别偏好影响会将资源向男性倾斜,导致政策没有通过控制家庭规模提高女性相对教育获得机会。研究认为,随着中国放松生育政策,农村地区由一孩半政策过渡到二孩政策并不会对女性教育获得产生明显影响,应该关注生育政策调整对严格独生子女政策地区女性教育获得的影响。同时,随着性别教育差距逐步缩小,可以利用劳动力市场政策降低市场性别歧视,进一步提高女性地位并促进性别平等。     

Does family planning help the employment of women? The case of India

This paper gives some insight into the existence of a positive effect of family planning programmes on women's employment in developing countries. We study married women aged 15–49 living throughout India using a sample drawn from the National Health Family Survey (NFHS-2) for 1998–1999. We focus on a programme of doorstep services delivered by health or family planning (FP) workers who are sent to visit women in their assigned areas. Results derived from the estimation of fixed effect linear probability and conditional logit models show a positive and significant correlation of the share of women living in a local area (village, town or city) that has been visited by FP workers with the probability of women's employment. A multinomial analysis also shows that the largest positive effect of FP in rural India is to be found on paid work, as opposed to unpaid work, suggesting a potential empowering feedback of demographic measures through labour earnings.     

Women's pay in British industry during the Second World War

This article reviews the evidence pertaining to changes in women's relative pay during the Second World War and presents new evidence relating to important wartime manufacturing industries. It is argued that gender pay inequality declined sharply where women were employed in industries that had previously been dominated by men, but did not occur in industries that had traditionally been important areas of female employment. The explanation for this pattern probably lies in a combination of excess demand effects and institutional factors, both of which were strongest in wartime munitions industries. Because of the importance of these industries to the war economy, the behaviour of inequality in munitions dominates the behaviour of inequality across all industries. Nearly all existing scholarship acknowledges the impact of the Second World War on reducing the employment segregation of women, but simultaneously views the war as an unimportant episode in the history of gender pay inequality. This article shows how the transition from 'female' to 'male' work also led to a significant improvement in women's relative pay.     

Employment and Earnings: A Case Study of Urban Detroit

This paper investigates the roles of manufacturing employment, neighborhood poverty, and family structure in determining wages among Detroit, MI workers, just prior to the current economic crisis. Employment in manufacturing has been crucial for blacks and whites: 39% of black and of white men in the Detroit metropolitan area worked in manufacturing in 2000. Regression analysis in this paper estimates employment in manufacturing raised wages 15.8% for all workers in the metropolitan area, 24.4% for blacks and 13.8% for whites. It finds a higher wage penalty (4.7%) for blacks in non-manufacturing industries than is found when manufacturing sector jobs are included (2.6%). Wage returns to education were greater in the non-manufacturing employment sector, especially for blacks. Residence in the poorest central city neighborhoods reduced wages significantly for white manufacturing and non-manufacturing workers. Its coefficient was insignificant for black workers. Gender and marital status effects on wages differed between blacks and whites in magnitude: White women suffered a larger penalty for their sex than black women (22.6 versus 9.6%) yet black men enjoyed a greater return to marriage than white men (27.5 versus 25.0%). Controlling for manufacturing reduced the gender wage gap and the returns to marriage for men. These findings suggest greater accessibility for women; and lower returns to marriage in non-manufacturing sectors. Among employed blacks access to manufacturing jobs has been their main source of decent wages. The adverse effects of the industry??s job loss in the 1980s and 1990s impacted all Detroit residents. Other high wage industries have employed relatively few blacks, have not paid them well; and have suffered job loss and slow growth over the period. Education could have raised wages for non-manufacturing workers, but not as much as access to manufacturing jobs. Today as in 2000, Detroit??s residents desperately need job creation or relocation to the central city; and job training and anti-discrimination policy enforcement throughout the metro-area. All of these would be necessary to offset job loss and reduce inequality and poverty in Detroit. The extent to which blacks will benefit from 2010?C11 improvements in manufacturing employment in Detroit depends upon whether private companies and the state provide equal access to the jobs and the training new technologies require.     

Women's employment, intra-household bargaining, and distribution: a two-sector analysis

This paper investigates the intra-household impact of an expansionin employment opportunities for women in a dual labor market,when the informal sector functions as a gateway to the formalsector. We us a variant of the Harris-Todaro framework withtwo-period overlapping generations to model this economy. Laborallocation decisions and distribution of household consumptionare determined according to the generalized Nash cooperativebargaining solution, and agents have perfect foresight. It isshown that an increase in demand for women's labor can shiftintra-household distribution in favor of men and thereby reducewomen's welfare.     

Male–female earnings differentials in early 20th century Manila

How might earnings of men and women have differed in poor countries a century ago? We know very little but a one-worker-in-ten labor market survey conducted in Manila in 1900 can help to establish baseline earnings patterns. In terms of raw means, women's earnings were about 30 percent less than men's, but both were distributed so that in some industries there were women who earned more than the average man. Controlling for hours, occupations and firm characteristics left female earnings discounts that varied by occupation from nothing to nearly half, ceteris paribus. Women workers concentrated in relatively skilled tobacco processing work, paid by the piece. Within this industry, productivity differentials were confounded by occupational segregation, however, in which men made the more expensive cigars and women the cheaper cigars and cigarettes.     

The Plight of African American Women: Employed and Unemployed

Understanding employment for African American women through the lens of neoclassical economics may not be best to help understand their plight. Their pay and the available employment has not been equal to that of men and even more so, African American women have lower paying jobs compared to their white counterparts, despite their achievement of higher levels of education. This paper looks at unemployment rates across the nation and then centers the discussion on black women in the context of the disparities over the past three decades. It combines the types of employment and wages that they have endured in context to white women during the same period of time. It uses Geographical Information Systems to underscore the concentration of income and race and the types of employment in those areas. It then provides some policy recommendations for the future.     

经济转型影响下的灵活就业制度创新研究

与传统正规就业相比,灵活就业更容易受到宏观经济波动、政府政策等外在因素影响。鉴于灵活就业在我国发展的现状,我国需要重新设计政府、企业、家庭和个人在劳动力市场中的角色,应该以多重思路构建灵活就业的政策体系,坚持就业效益和经济效益相结合。政府要把扶持和激励结合起来,使灵活就业者既得到了政策实惠又不依赖政府。     

Black women and labor force participation: An analysis of sluggish growth rates

The labor force participation rate of black women has not increased as fast as that of white women in spite of the fact that black females have the characteristics economists have found most encourage participation. Also black women at all socioeconomic levels have more positive attitudes towards labor market activity. The explanation for the failure for their work rates to grow as fast as those of white women appears to be inadequate employment opportunities for black women from lower socioeconomic groups. Education in or of itself, however, is not the solution to the problem because education yields lower returns to black women with limited schooling than is true for comparable whites. Any strategy devised to solve these employment inequities must address the low relative demand for these workers.     

The Economic Position of Women in Asia

This article surveys the literature on the economic position of women in Asian countries. Statistics show that the relative position of women improves with economic development. A negative income effect on women's economic participation in the paid workforce results in an inverse U-shaped relationship between female participation rate and economic development. Cultural influences affect the degree of discrimination against women, and these vary between countries. China and Australia illustrate the potentially moderating role of government policy on gender discrimination.     

Women and economic development

This article relates some experiences of local authority interventions in Wolverhampton which have contributed to effective economic development work with women. The intention is to highlight approaches and actions which we believe need to be incorporated into local authority economic strategy in order to address women's needs. We also aim to identify certain limiting factors arising from the national context. The paper is based on work undertaken by the authors whilst working for Wolverhampton Council.     

Debt to Society: Asset Poverty and Prisoner Reentry

Every year, millions of people exit American jails and prisons and attempt to reintegrate into society. Ex-offenders face many obstacles during the transition. Scholars contend that securing employment is central to a successful transition. A job that allows an ex-offender to earn an income above the poverty line is especially significant, recent studies have shown. Consequently, many prisoner reentry initiatives are focused on expanding employment opportunities for ex-offenders. However, the almost exclusive emphasis on employment as the measurement of economic well-being is short-sighted because it ignores the importance of financial education and asset ownership. Prisoner reentry programs should include an emphasis on financial education in addition to an emphasis on employment as a means of reducing recidivism rates and improving the economic well-being of the ex-offenders and receiving communities. The paper concludes with a discussion of policy implications.     

Third time right? The EC's third action programme for women

Amid the welter of “new initiatives” from Brussels promoting social integration is a programme for women which appears to offer something new. Nothing in the way of new money, nor novel employment projects, rather a distinctly feminist flavour: “equality” is now to be integrated “into general mainstream policy”; grassroot action - organisation at the local and regional level - is required; working life has to be “reconciled” with family responsibilities and, finally, “women's unequal representation in all spheres of decision making” has to be addressed.

How far this rhetoric will translate into enhanced employment prospects for women, especially women in this country, is nevertheless highly problematic.